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116-515: The BMW E28 is the second generation of BMW 5 Series executive cars, which was produced from 1981 to 1988 and replaced the E12 5 Series . Pre-series production began in April 1981 and the car was introduced in the autumn that year. The E28 was initially produced with straight-four and straight-six petrol engines until 1983, when the 524td model became the first BMW car to be powered by a diesel engine. It

232-463: A Ford F-150 with its footprint of 65–75 sq ft (6.0–7.0 m ) has a fuel economy target of 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km), i.e., 17 miles per US gallon (14 L/100 km) published. Individual vehicles do not have to meet their fuel economy targets; CAFE compliance is enforced at the fleet level. CAFE 2016 target fuel economy of 34.0 MPG (44 sq. ft. footprint) compares to 2012 advanced vehicle performance of Prius hybrid on

348-430: A "backstop" to prevent trucks from emitting more CO 2 than in previous years; failed to set standards for vehicles in the 8,500 to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) range; and failed to prepare a full Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) rather than a more abbreviated environmental impact assessment. The Court directed NHTSA to prepare a new standard as quickly as possible and to fully evaluate that new standard's impact on

464-439: A State may not adopt or enforce a law or regulation related to fuel economy standards or average fuel economy standards", and explained that laws or regulations applicable to motor vehicle greenhouse gas emissions are related to fuel economy standards. In mid-October 2008, DOT completed and released a final environmental impact statement in anticipation of issuing standards for model years 2011–2015. Based on its consideration of

580-500: A catalytic converter are a top speed of 225 km/h (140 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 7.2 seconds. With a catalytic converter, the figures are a top speed of 212 km/h (132 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 7.9 seconds M535i: The top of the regular production model range, the M535i uses the drivetrain from the 535i plus M-Technic suspension, and wheels and body panels not found on any other E28. The M535i

696-402: A certain set of assumptions which include: gas prices in 2016 will be $ 2.25 a U.S. gallon (59.4¢/L), all new car purchasers will pay 7% interest rates on their vehicles purchases, and only care about fuel costs for the first 5 years of a vehicle's life, and that the social cost of carbon is $ 7 per tonne of CO 2 . This corresponds to a global warming value of $ 4.31 savings a year per car under

812-443: A combined standard to be applied to the entire fleet of light trucks they sold that model year. In 1980 and 1981, respectively, a manufacturer whose light truck fleet was powered exclusively by basic engines which were not also used in passenger cars could meet standards of 14 mpg and 14.5 mpg. Since 1980, the traditional Japanese manufacturers have increased their combined fleet average fuel economy by 1.6 miles per gallon according to

928-561: A committee of the National Academy of Sciences wrote a report on the effects of the CAFE standard. The report's conclusions include a finding that in the absence of CAFE, and with no other fuel economy regulation substituted, motor vehicle fuel consumption would have been approximately 14 percent higher than it actually was in 2002. However, due to the effect of these standards on the types and weights of vehicles sold, it has increased

1044-400: A delta beam that is connected to the body with three screws in rubber bearings, that have longitudinal play. Some models have a rear anti-roll bar. The steering on most models is a speed-dependent recirculating ball power steering system made by ZF Friedrichshafen. The 518i has a Gemmer steering system with a double enveloping worm gear, also made by ZF. Wheel sizes are 14-inch (16-inch for

1160-546: A foreign fleet (everything else). Each of these fleets must separately meet the requirements. The two-fleet requirement was developed by the United Automobile Workers (UAW) as a means to ensure job creation in the United States. The UAW successfully lobbied Congress to write this provision into the enabling legislation – and continues to advocate this position. The two fleet rule for light trucks

1276-473: A given fleet of vehicles in a given model year is the production-weighted harmonic mean fuel economy, expressed in miles per US gallon ( mpg ), of a manufacturer's fleet of current model year passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 8,500 pounds (3,856 kg) or less (but also including medium-duty passenger vehicles, such as large sport-utility vehicles and passenger vans, with GVWR up to 10,000 pounds), produced for sale in

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1392-594: A gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 6000 pounds or less. The GVWR threshold was raised to 8500 pounds in 1980 and has remained at that level through 2010. Thus certain large trucks and SUV's were exempt, such as the Hummer and the Ford Excursion . From 1979 to 1991, separate standards were established for two-wheel drive (2WD) and four-wheel drive (4WD) light trucks, but for most of this period, car makers were allowed to choose between these separate standards or

1508-453: A higher standard. Unlike previous CAFE standards there was no requirement for a manufacturer or the industry as a whole to meet any particular overall actual MPG target, since that will depend on the mix of sizes of trucks manufactured and ultimately purchased by consumers. Some critics pointed out that this might have had the unintended consequence of pushing manufacturers to make ever-larger vehicles to avoid strict economy standards. However,

1624-416: A jump from the 2009 average for all vehicles of 25 miles per gallon. Obama said, "The status quo is no longer acceptable." The higher fuel economy was projected to reduce oil consumption by approximately 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m ) over the life of the program and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 900 million metric tons ; the expected consumer costs in terms of higher car prices

1740-496: A longer stroke 2.7-litre version of the 6-cylinder M20 petrol engine, is optimised for fuel economy and torque at low engine speed rather than the traditional high revving characteristics of BMW straight-six engines. The "e" stands for the Greek letter eta , for economy. According to BMW, the 525e is more fuel efficient than the 520i, which has the same rated power of 92 kW. Since many markets tax cars based on engine displacement,

1856-419: A lower fuel economy requirement than a vehicle with a smaller footprint. For example, the fuel economy target for the 2012 Honda Fit with a footprint of 40 sq ft (3.7 m ) is 36 miles per US gallon (6.5 L/100 km), equivalent to a published fuel economy of 27 miles per US gallon (8.7 L/100 km) (see #Calculations of MPG overestimated for information regarding the difference), and

1972-574: A new CAFE standard, NHTSA must assess the environmental impacts of each new standard and the effect of this standard on employment. With the EISA, NHTSA needed to take new analysis including taking a fresh look at the potential impacts under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and assessing whether or not the impacts are significant within the meaning of NEPA. NHTSA has to issue its new standards eighteen months before

2088-480: A petrol engined model specifically aimed at increased fuel economy (525e/528e model). The four models available at the launch of the E28 were the 518, 520i, 525i and 528i, with the 518 using a straight-four petrol engine and the other three models using a straight-six petrol engine. Over the course of the E28 model, the following models were added: the 524d and 524td using diesel engines, the 518i (a fuel-injected version of

2204-556: A turbocharged petrol engine, a 6-speed automatic transmission and regenerative braking. New safety features for the E60 included adaptive headlights, night vision, active headrests, Lane Departure Warning, and high intensity emergency brake lights. Unlike the three previous generations of 5 Series and the F10 successor, the E60/E61 centre console is not angled towards the driver. The E60/E61 M5

2320-407: Is 1,140–1,410 kg (2,513–3,109 lb). Cruise control, an on-board computer (to display trip information), and a "check control" panel (to alert the driver about fluid levels and lighting faults) were introduced to the 5 Series on the E28. The glazing is made of single-pane safety glass, the windscreen has laminated glass. As part of developing the air-conditioning system for the E28, several of

2436-580: Is also offered with a battery electric powertrain, dubbed the "i5". Three models are offered; the entry-level, rear-wheel-drive eDrive40 model, the mid-range, all-wheel-drive xDrive40, and the range topping M60 xDrive model. Current production is located in Dingolfing, Germany , Shenyang, China and Magna Steyr, Austria . Instagram BMW 5 Series Long Wheelbase Price | BMW Infinity Cars Corporate average fuel economy Corporate average fuel economy ( CAFE ) standards are regulations in

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2552-510: Is directed based on National Academy of Sciences studies to set medium and heavy-duty truck MPG standards to the "maximum feasible". Additionally, the law phases out the mpg credit previously granted to E85 flexible-fuel vehicle manufacturers and adds in one for biodiesel , and it adds a requirement that NHTSA publish replacement tire fuel efficiency ratings. The bill also adds support for initial state and local infrastructure for plug-in electric vehicles . On April 22, 2008, NHTSA responded to

2668-570: Is due primarily to increased fuel efficiency of imported cars. Similarly, the law of supply and demand predicts that due to the United States' large percentage consumption of the world's oil supply, that increasing fuel economy would drive down the gasoline prices that U.S. consumers would otherwise have to pay. Reductions in petroleum demand in the United States helped create the collapse of OPEC market power in 1986. The "CAFE" and "CAFE standard" shown here only regards new model passenger car fuel economy and target fuel economy (respectively) rather than

2784-525: Is powered by the S38 six-cylinder engine and was produced in sedan and wagon body styles. The E39 is the fourth generation of 5 Series, which was manufactured for model years 1995–2004. It was launched in the sedan body style, with the wagon/estate body style (marketed as "Touring") introduced in 1996. The E39 was the first 5 Series to use aluminium components in the front suspension. The proportion of chassis components using aluminium significantly increased for

2900-479: Is standard with all-wheel drive as well as a 375-hp turbocharged inline-six engine. All variants—excluding the plug-in hybrid variants—feature a 48-volt mild hybrid system; this system consists of a 20 Ah lithium-ion and an electric motor /integrated starter-generator rated at 13 kW (17 hp) and 200 N⋅m (150 lbf⋅ft). The 5 Series is claimed to be powerful enough to hit 60 miles per hour in 4.5 seconds by BMW. The eighth generation BMW 5 Series

3016-475: Is the eighth generation of the 5 Series. It was revealed on May 24, 2023, and will commence production in summer at BMW's Dingolfing Plant in 2023, with first deliveries beginning around October 2023. Body styles included: The fastback 6 Series Gran Turismo model has been discontinued. The 5-series will be offered in 530i, 540i, and 550e trims, with the 530i containing a 255-hp turbocharged 2.0-liter four-cylinder, offered with rear or all wheel drive. The 540i

3132-453: Is the first M5 to employ an all-wheel drive powertrain. The X-Drive system allowed for the front differential to disconnect and provide a rear-wheel drive experience to the vehicle. It is powered by an upgraded version of the S63 twin-turbo V8 engine used in the previous generation F10 M5. The 5 Series received a face lift in 2020, retaining the same mechanics and engines. The BMW G60/G61/G68

3248-452: Is used, with Macpherson struts at the front and a semi-trailing arm design for the rear. The front suspension was upgraded to use dual links at the bottom of the strut, as first seen on the E23 7 Series . This increases steering offset while cornering, to improve steering feel. Double-acting shock absorbers, coil springs and a front anti-roll bar are used. The rear suspension is mounted on

3364-451: Is welded to the body platform. The passenger cell is a safety passenger cell with deformation elements both in the front and rear of the vehicle. Unlike its E12 predecessor and E34 successor, the E28 has a rear-hinged bonnet. The boot has a volume of 460 L (122 US gal). Most models have a fuel tank capacity of 70 L (18 US gal), with some models having a smaller tank of 63 litres (17 US gal). The kerb weight

3480-671: The BMW M5 . The E12 is the first generation of 5 Series, and was manufactured for model years 1972–1981. It replaced the New Class sedans and was produced in the sedan body style. The initial models were powered by four-cylinder engines, with a six-cylinder engine introduced a year later. There was no M5 model for the E12, however the E12 M535i is considered the predecessor to the M5. The E12

3596-488: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 with proposed new fuel economy standards for cars and trucks effective model year 2011. The new rules also introduce the "footprint" model for cars as well as trucks, where if a manufacturer makes more large cars and trucks they will be allowed to meet a lower standard for fuel economy. This means that an overall fuel efficiency for a particular manufacturer nor

BMW 5 Series (E28) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3712-532: The European Union and was even higher in Japan, according to data as of 2008. Furthermore, despite general opinion that larger and heavier (and therefore relatively fuel-uneconomical) vehicles are safer, the U.S. traffic fatality rate—and its trend over time —is higher than some other western nations, although it has recently started to gradually decline at a faster rate than in previous years. In 2002,

3828-540: The "maximum feasible level" given consideration for: Historically, the EPA has encouraged consumers to buy more fuel efficient vehicles, while the NHTSA expressed concerns that smaller, more fuel efficient vehicles may lead to increased traffic fatalities. Thus higher fuel efficiency was associated with lower traffic safety, intertwining the issues of fuel economy , road-traffic safety , air pollution, and carbon emissions . In

3944-459: The 0.15 fuel divisor, but are not subject to the 1.2 mpg cap like dual-fuel vehicles. Manufacturers are also allowed to earn CAFE "credits" in any year they exceed CAFE requirements, which they may use to offset deficiencies in other years. CAFE credits can be applied to the three years before or the five years after the year in which they are earned. The reason for this flexibility is so manufacturers are penalized only for persistent failure to meet

4060-506: The 1986 Geneva Motor Show , four years after the introduction of the more powerful 524td model, the naturally-aspirated 524d model was introduced. It was only sold in some markets. 524td: This turbodiesel model was the first diesel car produced by BMW. It entered production in late 1982, when 100 pre-series cars were built. Factory performance figures for the manual transmission cars are a top speed of 180 km/h (112 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 12.9 seconds. BMW offered

4176-464: The 1990s, the impact of which is not reflected in this chart. In the case of passenger cars, U.S. average fuel economy did not fall as economic theory would predict, suggesting that CAFE standards maintained the higher fuel economy of the passenger car fleet during the long period from the end of the 1979 energy crisis to the rise of gasoline prices in the early 2000s. Most recently, fuel economy has increased about one mpg from 2006 to 2007. This increase

4292-502: The 1999 model year exceeded the 8,500 lb (3,900 kg) GVWR cutoff and were thus omitted from CAFE calculations. More recently, coverage of medium duty trucks has been added to the CAFE regulations starting in 2012, and heavy duty commercial trucks starting in 2014. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regulates CAFE standards and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measures vehicle fuel efficiency. Congress specifies that CAFE standards must be set at

4408-496: The 2011 model year standard by the end of March. This single-model year standard was issued March 27, 2009, and is about one mpg lower than the fuel economy standards previously recommended under the Bush Administration. "These standards are important steps in the nation's quest to achieve energy independence and bring more fuel efficient vehicles to American families", said Secretary LaHood. The new standards will raise

4524-463: The 2017–2020 timeframe, and are granted numerous ways to mathematically meet targets in the outlying years without significant real-world gains. The proposal encourages manufacturers and customers to shift toward larger, less efficient vehicles, defeating the goal of reduced greenhouse gas emissions." Additionally, Volkswagen has since approached U.S. lawmakers about lowering their proposal to double fuel efficiency for passenger cars by 2025. Volkswagen at

4640-467: The 2022 model year, is typically 76 percent of f {\displaystyle f} , and has gotten worse over its decades of use. f {\displaystyle f} is not the same as the Monroney window sticker value for consumer information. Fleet fuel economy is calculated using a harmonic mean , not a simple arithmetic mean (average) – namely, the reciprocal of the average of

4756-519: The 5 Series range. The 5 Series is BMW's second-best-selling model after the 3 Series . On 29 January 2008, the 5 millionth 5 Series was manufactured, a 530d sedan in Carbon Black Metallic. It is BMW’s oldest nameplate still in production and the first model line to use "Series" in the name, debuting the three-digit model naming convention still used today. Since the E28, all generations of 5 Series have included an "M" model, called

BMW 5 Series (E28) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4872-407: The 518), the 525e/528e as fuel-economy models, and the upper-specification 533i, 535i, M535i, and M5 models. A liquid petroleum gas (LPG) option was introduced for some petrol engines in 1984. 518: Sold only in some European markets where it suited local tax categories, the 518 was the lowest specification model which used a four-cylinder engine with a carburetor . Factory performance figures for

4988-458: The 6-cylinder 533i was the highest specification model during its production years of 1983–1984. It was replaced by the 535i. 535i/is: Released in 1984, the 535i replaced the 533i and uses the same 6-cylinder drivetrain as the M535i. In the US there was also a 535is model, which included sport seats and spoilers at the front and rear. Factory performance figures for the manual transmission cars without

5104-528: The BMW engineers in charge of this program drove a previous generation E12 5 Series during the middle of summer in Texas. The E12 528i was painted black with a black interior, and driven 500 mi (805 km) in one day. The styling was developed under BMW's chief designer Claus Luthe , with development of the E28 beginning in 1975. At the time that BMW was designing the E28, the company had only one computer, which

5220-416: The CAFE standards are newly expressed as mathematical functions depending on vehicle footprint, a measure of vehicle size determined by multiplying the vehicle's wheelbase by its average track width. A complicated 2011 mathematical formula was replaced starting in 2012 with a simpler inverse-linear formula with cutoff values. CAFE footprint requirements are set up such that a vehicle with a larger footprint has

5336-675: The Center for Biological Diversity as not addressing the inadequacies found by the previous court rulings. On May 19, 2009, President Barack Obama proposed a new national fuel economy program which adopts uniform federal standards to regulate both fuel economy and greenhouse gas emissions while preserving the legal authorities of DOT, EPA and California. The program covered model year 2012 to model year 2016 and ultimately required an average fuel economy standard of 35.5 miles per US gallon (6.63 L/100 km; 42.6 mpg ‑imp ) in 2016 (of 39 miles per gallon for cars and 30 mpg for trucks),

5452-545: The Detroit Three. In the years 2021 to 2030, the standards requires MPG to be the "maximum feasible" fuel economy. The law allows NHTSA to issue additional requirements for cars and trucks based on the footprint model or other mathematical standard. Additionally, each manufacturer must meet a minimum standard of the higher of either 27.5 mpg for passenger automobiles or 92% of the projected average for all manufacturers. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)

5568-462: The E28 with both manual and automatic gearboxes. The torque is transmitted from the engine with a single-disc dry clutch with a torsional damper in the models with a manual gearbox, the automatic models have a torque converter with built in lockup-clutch. The 5-speed manual transmissions are: The 5-speed manual transmissions are: The 3-speed automatic transmissions are: The 4-speed automatic transmissions are: Independent front and rear suspension

5684-477: The E39, in order to reduce weight. It was also the first 5 Series where a four-cylinder diesel engine was available. V8 models used recirculating ball steering (as per previous 5 Series generations), however rack and pinion steering was used for the first time, in the four-cylinder and six-cylinder models. Unlike its E34 predecessor and E60 successor, the E39 was not available with all-wheel drive. The E39 M5 sedan

5800-614: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has done significant work that will position the next Transportation Secretary to finalize a rule before the April 1, 2009 deadline." On January 27, 2009, President Barack Obama directed the Department of Transportation to review relevant legal, technological, and scientific considerations associated with establishing more stringent fuel economy standards, and to finalize

5916-458: The M5 model) or 390 mm Michelin TRX . All rims have 22 mm positive rim offset. The brakes use a hydraulic dual-circuit brake system with power assistance. The front wheels have disc brakes, that are – except for the 518i – internally ventilated. All models with 2.5 L or more displacement have rear disc brakes (non-vented), while the lesser powered models have rear drum brakes. To prevent

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6032-536: The March 30, 2009, Summary of Fuel Economy Performance published annually by NHTSA. During this time, they also increased their sales in the United States by 221%. The traditional European manufacturers actually decreased their fleet average fuel economy by 2 miles per gallon while increasing their sales volume by 91%. The traditional U.S. manufacturers, Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors, increased their fleet average fuel economy by 4.1 miles per gallon since 1980 according to

6148-586: The Ninth Circuit agreed with NHTSA that economic benefit-cost analysis (maximizing net economic benefits to the Nation) is, under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), an appropriate method to select the maximum feasible stringency of CAFE standards, but nonetheless found that NHTSA incorrectly set a value of zero dollars to the global warming damage caused by CO 2 emissions; failed to set

6264-488: The United States billions of gallons of fuel. The requirement applies to all passenger automobiles, including "light trucks." President Bush faced serious pressure to reduce the Nation's dependency on oil and this was part of his initiative to do so. Under the new final light truck CAFE standard 2008–2011, fuel economy standards would have been restructured so that they are based on a measure of vehicle size called "footprint",

6380-641: The United States, first enacted by the United States Congress in 1975, after the 1973–74 Arab Oil Embargo , to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles ) produced for sale in the United States. More recently, efficiency standards were developed and implemented for heavy-duty pickup trucks and commercial medium-duty and heavy-duty vehicles. CAFE neither directly offers incentives for customers to choose fuel efficient vehicles nor directly affects fuel prices. Rather, it attempts to accomplish

6496-453: The United States. The CAFE standards in a given model year define the CAFE levels that manufacturers' fleets are required to meet in that model year, specific levels depending on the characteristics and mix of vehicles produced by each manufacturer. If the average fuel economy of a manufacturer's annual fleet of vehicle production falls below the applicable requirement, the manufacturer must either apply sufficient CAFE credits (see below) to cover

6612-518: The average, for CAFE purposes, despite perhaps only one percent of the fuel used in E85-capable vehicles is actually E85, is computed as 100 mpg for E-85 and the standard 25 mpg for gasoline, or 62.5 mpg. However, the total increase in a manufacturer's average fuel economy rating due to dual-fueled vehicles cannot exceed 1.2mpg. Section 32906 reduces the increase due to dual-fueled vehicles to 0 through 2020. Electric vehicles are also incentivized by

6728-692: The changes in the structure of CAFE create a need for research that incorporates the demand and supply sides of the new vehicle market in a more detailed manner than was needed with static fuel economy standards. Volkswagen responded to the July 29, 2011, agreement with the following statement: "Volkswagen does not endorse the proposal under discussion. It places an unfairly high burden on passenger cars, while allowing special compliance flexibility for heavier light trucks. Passenger cars would be required to achieve 5% annual improvements, and light trucks 3.5% annual improvements. The largest trucks carry almost no burden for

6844-689: The compliance test cycles: 70.7 MPG, Plug-in Prius hybrid: 69.8 MPGe and LEAF electric vehicle: 141.7 MPGe. The compliance fuel economy of plug-in electric vehicles such as the Plug-in Prius or LEAF is complicated by accounting for the energy used in generating electricity. CAFE has separate standards for "passenger cars" and "light trucks" even if the majority of "light trucks" are being used as passenger vehicles. The market share of "light trucks" grew steadily from 9.7% in 1979 to 47% in 2001, remained in 50% numbers up to 2011. More than 500,000 vehicles in

6960-482: The costs of vehicles and may have led to an estimated 1,300 to 2,600 increased fatalities in the year 1993 alone, though certain members of the committee dissented from the latter opinion. A plot of average overall vehicle fuel economy (CAFE) for new model year passenger cars, the required by law CAFE standard target fuel economy value (CAFE standard) for new model year passenger cars, and fuel prices, adjusted for inflation, shows that there has been little variation over

7076-573: The demand for electric vehicles . CAFE standards are administered by the secretary of transportation via the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration . The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), as amended by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), requires that the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) establish standards separately for passenger automobiles (passenger cars) and nonpassenger automobiles (light trucks) at

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7192-463: The environment. In 2007, the House and Senate passed the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) with broad support, setting a goal for the national fuel economy standard of 35 miles per gallon (mpg) by 2020 and rendering the court judgment obsolete. On December 19, 2007, President George W. Bush signed the bill. The bill's standard would increase the fuel economy standards by 40 percent and save

7308-431: The equation used to calculate the fuel economy target had a built in mechanism that provides an incentive to reduce vehicle size to about 52 square feet (the approximate midpoint of the current light truck fleet.) In 2006, the rule making for light trucks for model years 2008–2011 included a reform to the structure for CAFE standards for light trucks and gave manufacturers the option for model years 2008–2010 to comply with

7424-461: The eta's larger engine meant that it was not suitable everywhere. The model was expressly developed with the American market in mind. BMW's corporate average fuel economy was at risk of not meeting requirements by 1984, primarily due to higher sales of their bigger, more expensive cars in the early 1980s. In Austria, the 525e was detuned to 88 kW (118 hp). Factory performance figures for

7540-528: The first time in a 5 Series. The E28 was the first 5 Series with the centre console angled towards the driver and the option of anti-lock brakes (ABS). The E28 M5 began a line of M5 high performance models that has continued through every generation since. It was powered by the S38B35 and the M88/3 six-cylinder engines. The E34 is the third generation of the 5 Series, manufactured for model years 1988–1996. It

7656-466: The fleet as a whole cannot be predicted with certainty since it will depend on the actual product mix manufactured. However, if the product mix is as NHTSA predicts, car fuel economy would increase from a current standard of 27.5 mpg ‑US (8.6 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg ‑imp ) to 31.0 mpg ‑US (7.6 L/100 km; 37.2 mpg ‑imp ) in 2011. The new regulations are designed to be "optimized" with respect to

7772-564: The footprint model. Secretary LaHood also noted that work on the multi-year fuel economy plan for model years after 2011 is already well underway. The review will include an evaluation of fuel-saving technologies, market conditions and future product plans from the manufacturers. The effort will be coordinated with interested stakeholders and other federal agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency. The new rules were immediately challenged in court again by

7888-434: The form of greenhouse gas emissions and other conventional pollutants, one national policy for all automakers instead of three standards (a DOT standard, an EPA standard and a California standard that would apply to 13 other states), and industry desires: clarity, predictability and certainty concerning the rules while giving them flexibility on how to meet the expected outcomes and the lead time they need to innovate. The policy

8004-490: The fuel economy of driving each car in the fleet for the same number of miles, while the arithmetic mean captures the fuel economy of driving each car using the same amount of gas (i.e., the 13 mpg vehicle would travel 13 miles (21 km) with one gallon while the 100 mpg vehicle would travel 100 miles). For the purposes of CAFE, a manufacturer's car output is divided into a domestic fleet (vehicles with more than 75 percent U.S., Canadian or post- NAFTA Mexican content) and

8120-424: The goals indirectly, by making it more expensive for automakers to build inefficient vehicles by introducing penalties. The original CAFE standards sought to drive automotive innovation to curtail fuel consumption, and now the aim is also to create domestic jobs and cut global warming . Stringent CAFE standards together with government incentives for fuel efficient vehicles in the United States should accelerate

8236-478: The government figures. During this time the sales of U.S. manufacturers decreased by 29%. A number of manufacturers choose to pay CAFE penalties rather than attempt to comply with the regulations. These tend to be companies with small U.S. market share and expensive, high-performance vehicles, such as Porsche , Mercedes , and Fiat . In model year 2012, Jaguar ( Land Rover ) and Volvo did not meet CAFE requirements. They paid fines totaling 15 million dollars for

8352-683: The industry-wide combined average to 27.3 miles per US gallon (8.6 L/100 km; 32.8 mpg ‑imp ) (a 2.0 mpg ‑US (2.4 mpg ‑imp ) increase over the 2010 model year average), as estimated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). It will save about 887,000,000 U.S. gallons (3.36 × 10  L) of fuel and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 8.3 million metric tons. This 2011 single-year standard will use an attribute-based system, which sets fuel economy standards for individual vehicle models, based on

8468-444: The long run to an increase in the average fuel economy of the U.S. passenger car fleet, and that a drop in gasoline prices would be associated with a reduction in the average fuel economy of the entire U.S. fleet. There is some evidence that this happened with an increase in market share of lower fuel economy light trucks and SUVs and decline in passenger car sales, as a percentage of total fleet sales, as car buying trends changed during

8584-413: The manual transmission cars are a top speed of 164 km/h (102 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 14.0 seconds. 518i: The base model in Japan and some European countries, the 518i used a fuel-injected four-cylinder engine. Factory performance figures for the manual transmission cars are a top speed of 175 km/h (109 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 12.6 seconds. This version

8700-484: The manual transmission cars are a top speed of 201 km/h (125 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 9.8 seconds. 528i: Initially the highest specification available, the 6-cylinder 528i became a mid-range model following the release of the 533i and 535i models. Factory performance figures for the manual transmission cars are a top speed of 215 km/h (134 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 8.4 seconds. 533i: Only sold in Japan and North America,

8816-488: The manual transmission cars without a catalytic converter are a top speed of 190 km/h (118 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 10.7 seconds. With a catalytic converter, the figures are a top speed of 188 km/h (117 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 11.3 seconds 525i: This mid-range model is powered by a 2.5-litre 6-cylinder engine. The 525i was only sold in Europe. Factory performance figures for

8932-487: The maximum feasible levels in each model year, and requires that DOT enforce compliance with the standards. DOT has delegated the responsibilities to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Through EPCA and EISA, U.S. law (49 U.S. Code § 32919) also preempts state or local laws: "a State or a political subdivision of a State may not adopt or enforce a law or regulation related to fuel economy standards or average fuel economy standards." The CAFE achieved by

9048-469: The mid-2000s, increasing safety of smaller cars and the poor safety record of light trucks began to reverse this association. Nevertheless, in 2008, the on-road vehicle fleets in the United States and Canada had the lowest overall average fuel economy among first world nations: 25 miles per US gallon (9.4 L/100 km) in North America, versus 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100 km) in

9164-598: The minimum standard in the domestic passenger car fleet, however they may be used to meet the "attribute standard". This latter allowance has drawn criticism from the UAW which fears it will lead manufacturers to increase the importation of small cars to offset shortfalls in the domestic market. These new flexibilities were implemented by regulation on March 23, 2009, in the Final Rule for 2011 Model Year Passenger Cars and Light Trucks. Calculations using official CAFE data, and

9280-527: The model year for fleet. According to NHTSA report, to achieve this industry wide combined fleet of at least 35mpg, NHTSA must set new standards well in advance of the model year so as to provide the automobile manufacturers with lead time enough to make extensive necessary changes in their automobiles. The EISA also called for a reform where the standards set by the Transportation Department would be are "attribute based" so as to ensure that

9396-424: The new regulations. Further, the new regulations assume that no advanced hybrids ( Toyota Prius ), plug-in hybrids and extended range electric vehicles ( Chevrolet Volt ), electric cars ( Th!nk City ), nor alternative fuel vehicles ( Honda Civic GX ) will be used to achieve these fuel economies. The proposal again explained that U.S. law (49 U.S. Code § 32919) requires that "a State or a political subdivision of

9512-488: The newly proposed credit trading flexibility contained in the September 28, 2009, Notice of Proposed Rulemaking show that ninety-eight percent of the benefit derived from just the cross fleet credit trading provision flows to Toyota. According to these calculations 75% of the benefit from the two new CAFE credit trading provisions, cross fleet trading and five-year carry-forward, falls to foreign manufacturers. Toyota can use

9628-559: The overall U.S. fuel economy average which tends to be dominated by used vehicles manufactured in previous years, new model light truck CAFE standards, light truck CAFE averages, or aggregate data. Under CAFE regulations, a light vehicle's fuel economy, f {\displaystyle f} , is determined as the weighted harmonic average of the values measured on the “city” ( FTP-75 ) and “highway” ( HWFET ) drive cycles. f {\displaystyle f} has long been known to overestimate real-world fuel economy which, as of

9744-438: The overall length by 180 mm (7.1 in). The 528i, 533i and 535i were sold with a catalytic converter in the United States. Instead of importing the M535i, BMW of North America created the 535is. This model is based on a 535i, plus front and rear spoilers, sport suspension and sport seats. Production of North American market M5 models began in late 1986 (two years after M5 production began for European markets), and it

9860-523: The past 20 years. Within this period, there are three distinct periods of fuel economy change: before returning to 1986 levels in 1990. These are following by an extended period during which the passenger car CAFE standard, the observed average passenger car fuel economy, and the price of gasoline remained stable, and finally a period starting about 2003 when prices rose dramatically and fuel economy has slowly responded. The law of supply and demand would predict that an increase in gasoline prices would lead in

9976-466: The previous generation is no longer offered, and was moved to the 6 Series range. The G30 is based on the same modular platform as the 7 Series (G11) . The G30 is the first 5 Series to be offered with a plug-in hybrid powertrain, the 530e iPerformance , which would have the advanced driver-assistance systems found in the 7 Series. The F90 M5 is the M5 performance model for the G30 generation, and

10092-465: The product of multiplying a vehicle's wheelbase by its track width. A target level of fuel economy would have been established for each increment in footprint using a continuous mathematical formula. Smaller footprint light trucks had higher fuel economy targets and larger trucks lower targets. Manufacturers who made more large trucks would have been allowed to meet a lower overall CAFE target, manufacturers who make more small trucks would have needed to meet

10208-406: The provision to avoid or reduce compliance on average by 0.69 mpg per year through 2020, The estimated value of the CAFE exemption gained by Toyota is $ 2.5 billion; Honda's benefit is worth $ 800 million, and Nissan's benefit is valued at $ 900 million in reduced CAFE compliance costs. Foreign companies gained $ 5.5 billion in benefits compared with the $ 1.8 billion that went to

10324-458: The public comments and other available information, including information on the financial condition of the automotive industry, the agency adjusted its analysis and the standards and prepared a final rule and Final Regulatory Impact Analysis (FRIA) for MYs 2011–2015. On November 14, 2008, the Office of Management and Budget concluded review of the rule and FRIA. However, issuance of the final rule

10440-494: The range are: The F07 Gran Turismo was the only 5 Series to date produced as a fastback. The F10 was also the first 5 Series to offer a hybrid drivetrain, a turbocharged V8 engine, an 8-speed automatic transmission, a dual-clutch transmission, active rear-wheel steering (called "Integral Active Steering"), electric power steering, double-wishbone front suspension, an LCD instrument cluster (called "Black Panel Display") and automatic parking (called "Parking Assistant"). The F10 M5

10556-436: The reciprocal values. For a fleet composed of four different kinds of vehicle A, B, C and D, produced in numbers n A , n B , n C and n D , with fuel economies f A , f B , f C and f D , the CAFE would be: For example, a fleet of 4 vehicles getting 15, 13, 17, and 100 mpg has a CAFE of slightly less than 19 mpg: While the arithmetic mean fuel economy of the fleet is just over 36 mpg: The harmonic mean captures

10672-425: The reformed standard or to comply with the unreformed standard. The reformed standard was based on the vehicle footprint. The unreformed standard for MY 2008 was set to be 22.5mpg, 23.1mpg for MY 2009, and 23.5mpg for MY 2010. To achieve the target of 35mpg authorized under EISA for the combined fleet of passenger cars and light truck for MY2020, NHTSA is required to continue raising the CAFE standards. In determining

10788-407: The requirements, not for transient non-compliance due to market conditions. Fuel economy regulations were first introduced in 1978, only for passenger vehicles. NHTSA kept CAFE standards for cars the same from 1985 to 2010, except for a slight decrease in required mpg from 1986 to 1989. The next year, a second category was defined for light trucks. These were distinguished from heavy duty vehicles by

10904-477: The safety of vehicles is not compromised for higher standards. The 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act also instructed NHTSA to establish a credit trading and transferring scheme to allow manufacturers to transfer credits between categories, as well as sell them to other manufacturers or non-manufacturers. In addition, the period over which credits could be carried forward was extended from three years to five. Traded or transferred credits may not be used to meet

11020-516: The shortfall or pay a penalty , currently $ 14 per 0.1 mpg under the standard, multiplied by the manufacturer's total production for the U.S. domestic market. Congress established both of these provisions explicitly in EPCA, as amended in 2007 by EISA. In addition, a Gas Guzzler Tax is levied on individual passenger car models (but not trucks, vans, minivans, or SUVs) that get less than 22.5 miles per US gallon (10.5 L/100 km). Starting in 2011,

11136-510: The wheels from locking, BMW equipped the E28 after 1984 with an anti-lock braking system , although it was an option in some markets. The E28 was the first M5 model produced, and is powered by the M88/3 and S38 straight-six engines. The North American line-up consisted of the 528e (1982–1988, known as the 525e in Europe), 533i (1983–1984), 535i (1985–1988), 524td (1985–1986), M5 (1986–1987) and 535is (1987–1988). The launch model

11252-407: The year. For the 2014 model year, Mercedes SUVs followed by GM and Ford light trucks had the lowest fleet average while Tesla followed by Toyota and Mazda had the highest. Before the oil price increases of the 2000s, overall fuel economy for both cars and light trucks in the U.S. market reached its highest level in 1987, when manufacturers managed 26.2 mpg (8.98 L/100 km). The average in 2004

11368-759: Was 24.6 mpg. In that time, vehicles increased in size from an average of 3,220 pounds to 4,066 pounds (1,461 kg to 1,844 kg), in part due to an increase in truck ownership from 28% to 53%. The CAFE rules for trucks were officially amended at the end of March 2006. However, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals has overturned the rules, returning them to NHTSA, as discussed below. These changes would have segmented truck fleets by vehicle size and class as of 2011. All SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 pounds GVWR would have had to comply with CAFE standards regardless of size, but pickup trucks and cargo vans over 8500 pounds gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) would have remained exempt. The United States Court of Appeals for

11484-600: Was 30.7 mpg (35.6 mpg for cars and 25.5 mpg for trucks) and for the years 2012–2015, auto industry outperformed the GHG standard by a substantial margin. Consumers are expected to save an estimated 16.6 billion gallons of fuel over the lifetime of model year 2011 to 2014 vehicles due to the manufacturers exceeding the CAFE standards in those years. On July 29, 2011, President Obama announced an agreement with thirteen large automakers to increase fuel economy to 54.5 miles per gallon for cars and light-duty trucks by model year 2025. He

11600-468: Was also sold in South Africa from mid-1987 to the end of 1988. BMW 5 Series The first generation of the 5 Series was powered by naturally aspirated four-cylinder and six-cylinder petrol engines. Following generations have been powered by four-cylinder, six-cylinder, V8 and V10 engines that are either naturally aspirated or turbocharged . Since 1982, diesel engines have been included in

11716-472: Was also the first 5 Series with the centre console angled towards the driver and to be available with anti-lock brakes (ABS). The first BMW M5 was produced during the E28 generation. It was powered by the M88/3 and S38 straight-six engines. The E24 6 Series coupés were built on the E28 platform from 1982 to 1989. The E28 was replaced by the E34 5 Series in 1988. The E28 has a self-supporting body that

11832-471: Was assembled on the standard E28 assembly lines in Dingolfing and Rosslyn. Factory performance figures for the manual transmission cars without a catalytic converter are a top speed of 230 km/h (143 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 7.2 seconds. With a catalytic converter, the figures are a top speed of 217 km/h (135 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 7.9 seconds 524d: At

11948-406: Was expected to result in yearly 5% increases in efficiency from 2012 through 2016, 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m ) of oil saved cumulatively over the lifetime of the program and significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 177 million of today's cars off the road. By model year 2014, many of the program's goals were being met. The average new vehicle fuel economy

12064-430: Was held in abeyance. On January 7, 2009, the Department of Transportation announced that the final rule would not be issued, writing: "The Bush Administration will not finalize its rulemaking on Corporate Fuel Economy Standards. The recent financial difficulties of the automobile industry will require the next administration to conduct a thorough review of matters affecting the industry, including how to effectively implement

12180-411: Was introduced in 1998, powered by the 4.9-litre S62 V8 engine. The E60/E61 is the fifth generation of the 5 Series, which was sold from 2003 to 2010. The body styles of the range are: The E60 generation introduced various electronic features to the 5 Series, including iDrive , head-up display, active cruise control, active steering and voice control. The E60 also was the first 5 Series available with

12296-658: Was joined by Ford, GM, Chrysler, BMW, Honda, Hyundai, Jaguar/Land Rover, Kia, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Toyota, and Volvo—which together accounted for over 90% of all vehicles sold in the United States—as well as the United Auto Workers (UAW), and the State of California, who were all participants in the deal. The agreement resulted in new CAFE regulations for model year 2017–2025 vehicles, which were finalized on August 28, 2012. The major increases in stringency and

12412-568: Was launched in the sedan body style, with the range expanded in 1990 to include the "Touring" wagon/estate body style. The E34 was the first 5 Series to be available with the wagon body style, all-wheel drive and V8 engines. It also saw the introduction of stability control (ASC), traction control (ASC+T), a 6-speed manual transmission and adjustable damping (EDC) to the 5 Series range. Nine different engine families were used over its lifetime, consisting of four-cylinder, six-cylinder and V8 petrol engines, and six-cylinder diesel engines. The E34 M5

12528-468: Was not sold in West Germany until the 1984 facelift, when it replaced the carburetted 518. 520i: A mid-range model with the smallest of the available six-cylinder engines. Factory performance figures for the manual transmission cars are a top speed of 190 km/h (118 mph) and 0–100 km/h acceleration in 11.4 seconds. 525e / 528e: The 525e (called 528e in North America and Japan) uses

12644-650: Was only produced for twelve months as 1988 model year car. North American M5 models use the S38 engine instead of the M88/3. All North American M5 cars were painted Jet Black and most interiors were tan ("Natur") coloured leather. E28 production started in July 1981 and ended in December 1987. A total of 722,328 cars were built. The E28 was still sold in North America as a 1988 Model Year car after its E34 successor had been released in Europe in early 1988. A limited edition model

12760-655: Was powered by the S63 twin-turbo V8 engine with a 7-speed dual clutch transmission. It was the first M5 to use a turbocharged engine. Like the previous generation, the F10 M5, in North America was sold with a manual transmission. The BMW G30/G31/G38 is the seventh generation of the 5 Series. It was officially announced in October 2016, and sales began in February 2017. Body styles included: The fastback 5 Series GT model from

12876-611: Was released in 2005 and was powered by the S85 V10 engine. It was sold in the sedan and wagon body styles, with most cars using a 7-speed automated manual transmission ("SMG III"). However, in the North American Markets, there was the option to buy the BMW M5 in a manual version. The BMW F10/F11/F07/F18 is the sixth generation of the BMW 5 Series, which was manufactured for model years 2010–2017. The body styles of

12992-628: Was removed in 1996. For the fuel economy calculation for alternative fuel vehicles, a gallon of alternative fuel is deemed to contain 15% fuel (which is approximately the amount of gasoline in a gallon of E85) as an incentive to develop alternative fuel vehicles . The mileage for dual-fuel vehicles, such as E85 capable models and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, is computed as the average of its alternative fuel rating—divided by 0.15 (equal to multiplying by 6.666)—and its gasoline rating. Thus an E85-capable vehicle that gets 15 mpg on E-85 and 25 mpg on gasoline might logically be rated at 20 mpg. But in fact

13108-464: Was replaced by the E28 in 1981, with South African production continuing until September 1985. The later South African models received the E28's interior; this model is called the E12/8. The E28 is the second generation of 5 Series, manufactured for model years 1981-1988 as a sedan. It was initially offered with petrol four-cylinder and six-cylinder engines. In 1983, a diesel engine became available for

13224-443: Was the 528e in 1982, followed by the 533i. The optional automatic transmission was initially a 3-speed (a 4-speed automatic was available in Europe at the time), with a 4-speed automatic transmission becoming optional in 1983. From 1985, all North American models had ABS Brakes as standard. The North American E28 models had larger bumpers (designed to withstand a 5 mph (8.0 km/h) collision without body damage), which increased

13340-600: Was unknown. Ten car companies and the UAW embraced the national program because it provided certainty and predictability to 2016 and included flexibilities that would significantly reduce the cost of compliance. Stated goals for the program included: saving consumers money over the long term in increased fuel efficiency, preserving consumer choice (the new rules do not dictate the size of cars, trucks and SUVs that manufacturers can produce; rather it requires that all sizes of vehicles become more energy efficient), reduced air pollution in

13456-453: Was used for payroll management and spare parts logistics. Wolfgang Matschinsky and his team borrowed that computer to perform the calculations necessary to develop the new drivetrain and chassis. This was due to the fact that the addition of an ABS system necessitated a redesign from the previous model due to excessive vibrations under heavy braking. The E28 was the first 5 Series produced with diesel engines (the 524d and 524td models) and with

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