40-478: Hermetia illucens , the black soldier fly , is a common and widespread fly of the family Stratiomyidae . Since the late 20th century, H. illucens has increasingly been gaining attention because of its usefulness for recycling organic waste and generating animal feed. This species is native to the Neotropical realm , but in recent decades has spread across all continents, becoming virtually cosmopolitan . It
80-693: A parasitoid of H. illucens pupae and decrease egg production. It has been found to reduce stocks by up to 72%. The parasite is carried by the wasps and precautions should be taken to protect the larvae from exposure to these wasps. Also the Chalcididae Eniacomorpha hermetiae has been described as a parasitoid of H. illucens that may negatively impact efforts of mass production in Africa. Stratiomyidae The soldier flies ( Stratiomyidae , sometimes misspelled as Stratiomyiidae , from Greek στρατιώτης - soldier; μυια - fly) are
120-466: A breathing tube, which ends with a tuft of waterproofing bristles. It is used to draw air from the surface, with the larva remaining submerged. The pupa develops inside the exuvia of the last larval stage , a feature common to all Stratiomyomorpha. The pupation within the larval exuvia constitutes a case of evolutionary convergence with Cyclorrhapha , in which group is the formation of a true puparium. The larvae of Stratiomyidae are characterized by
160-638: A family of flies (historically placed in the now-obsolete group Orthorrhapha ). The family contains over 2,700 species in over 380 extant genera worldwide. Larvae are found in a wide array of locations, mostly in wetlands, damp places in soil, sod, under bark, in animal excrement, and in decaying organic matter. Adults are found near larval habitats. They are diverse in size and shape, though they commonly are partly or wholly metallic green, or somewhat wasplike mimics , marked with black and yellow or green and sometimes metallic. They are often rather inactive flies which typically rest with their wings placed one above
200-400: A feasible feedstock for biodiesel production. The main difficulty in farming is obtaining BSFL or eggs to start or replenish the colony. This is usually done by enticing the soldier flies to lay eggs in small holes over the grub bin. Adult flies lay clusters of eggs in the edges of corrugated cardboard or corrugated plastic . In some regions, starting or maintaining adequate larvae colonies
240-600: A feeder insect for exotic pets by D. Craig Sheppard, who named the larvae Phoenix Worms and began marketing them as pet food. In 2006, Phoenix Worms became the first feeder insect to be granted a U.S. registered trademark . Other companies also market BSFL under such brand names as NutriGrubs, Soldier Grubs, Reptiworms, Calciworms, BIOgrubs, and Obie's Worms (Canada). In Africa, they are marketed as live feeder, meal and oil by ProtiCycle for animal feed, pet food for dogs and cats, and food for fish such as tilapia and catfish. In West Africa, Dirhinus giffardii has been found to be
280-422: A stage called the "prepupa" wherein they cease to eat, and they tend to migrate toward cool, dark, and dry substrates to pupate . This prepupal migration instinct is used by grub composting bins to self-harvest the mature larvae. These containers have ramps or holes on the sides to allow the prepupae to climb out of the composter and drop into a collection area. Larvae are beneficial in these ways: Aside from
320-414: A table-top insect-breeding farm called "Farm 432" in which people can produce edible fly larvae at home. It is a multichambered plastic machine that looks like a kitchen appliance and can produce 500 grams (1.1 lb) of larvae or two meals in a week. The taste of the larvae is said to be very distinctive. Unger: "When you cook them, they smell a bit like cooked potatoes. The consistency is a bit harder on
360-536: A time. These eggs are typically deposited in crevices or on surfaces above or adjacent to decaying matter such as manure or compost, and hatch in about 4 days. Freshly emerged larvae are 1.0 millimetre (0.04 in) long, being able to reach a length of 25 millimetres (1 in) and weight of 0.10 to 0.22 grams (1.5 to 3.4 gr) by the end of larval stage. The larvae are able to feed on a wide variety of organic matter, adapting to diets with different nutrient content. The larval stage lasts from 18 to 36 days, depending on
400-500: A wide variety of behaviours and habitats. They are mainly scavengers, but aquatic species also feed on algae. Less frequently, they may be predators or herbivores . The aquatic larvae are sometimes characterized by particularly specific habitat requirements. For example, several species colonize rocks covered by a thin layer of water (hygropetric); others are found in brackish water, and some in thermal springs. In general, though, Stratiomyidae larvae colonize stagnant waters or rivers near
440-421: Is also used in water purification. Chitin also has potential as a soil amendment, to improve soil fertility and plant resilience. The residues from the decomposition process (frass) by the larvae comprise larval faeces, shed larval exoskeletons , and undigested material. Frass is one of the main products from commercial black soldier fly rearing. The chemical profile of the frass varies with the substrate on which
SECTION 10
#1732783859364480-468: Is going on whether the frass from BSFL rearing can be used as a fertilizer in a fresh state or has to undergo further composting before its application. Some assume that further composting would lead to the reduction of potential phytotoxic properties. In the European Union , insect frass has to be treated for one hour at 70 °C (158 °F) before commercialization for safety reasons, whereas
520-475: Is one of the few insect species approved to be used as feed in aquaculture in the EU. At the pupal stage, black soldier flies are at their nutritional peak. They can be stored at room temperature for several weeks, and their longest shelf life is achieved at 10 to 16 °C (50 to 60 °F). Records of human consumption of H. illucens are difficult to find. In 2013, Austrian designer Katharina Unger invented
560-566: Is possible from native soldier flies, but pest species such as houseflies and blowflies are also drawn to many of the foods used to attract soldier flies (such as fermented chicken feed). In tropical or subtropical climates, they might breed year-round, but in other climates, a greenhouse may be needed to obtain eggs in the cooler periods. The grubs are quite hardy and can handle more acidic conditions and higher temperatures than redworms. Larvae can survive cold winters, particularly with large numbers of grubs, insulation, or compost heat (generated by
600-840: Is present in most of North America and Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula , southern France , Italy , Croatia , Malta , the Canary Islands , and Switzerland , and on the Black Sea coast of Russia in the Krasnodar Territory . It can also be found in the Afrotropical realm , the Australasian realm , the east Palaearctic realm , the Nearctic realm , North Africa , Southern Africa , and
640-658: Is provided. The larvae and adults are considered neither pests nor vectors. Instead, black soldier fly larvae play a role similar to that of redworms as essential decomposers in breaking down organic substrates and returning nutrients to the soil. The larvae have voracious appetites and can be used for composting household food scraps and agricultural waste products. Additionally, black soldier fly larvae are an alternative source of protein for aquaculture , animal feed , and pet food . The larvae are produced and processed in industrial-scale insect factories globally by biotechnology companies such as InnovaFeed and Protix ,
680-427: Is wide, with very developed eyes. The antennae are about twice the length of the head. The legs are black with whitish tarsi. The wings are membranous; at rest, they are folded horizontally on the abdomen and overlapped. H. illucens is a mimic fly, very close in size, color, and appearance to the organ pipe mud dauber wasp and its relatives. The mimicry of this particular kind of wasp is especially enhanced in that
720-510: The Indomalayan realm . The adults of H. illucens measure about 16 millimetres ( 5 ⁄ 8 in) long. These medium-sized flies have a predominantly black body, with metallic reflections ranging from blue to green on the thorax and sometimes with a reddish end of the abdomen. The second abdominal tergite has translucent areas, from which the Latin specific epithet derives. The head
760-420: The adults to light that is particularly rich in wavelengths near 440 and/or 540 nm and has an irradiance that is an appreciable fraction of the intensity of full sunlight. In tropical conditions, morning direct sunlight is optimal for emergence, mating, and egglaying, with indirect sunlight often preferred before and after mating. Humidity at 70% is considered optimal for all stages of their lifecycle. Substrate
800-434: The bottom is the ground. Redworms can live in grub bins when a large number of larvae are not present. Worms can be added if the larval population gets low (in the cold season) and worms can be raised in grub bins while awaiting eggs from wild black soldier flies. As a feeder species, BSFL are not known to be intermediate hosts of parasitic worms that infect poultry, while redworms are host to many. BSFL were developed as
840-543: The case of composting, which is one of the standard proposed pretreatments for biomass polluted after phytoextraction. The type of heavy metal did not affect the degree of use. Cadmium mostly accumulates in the puparium , while zinc accumulates in the adult fly. The use of insect for bioremediation is named entomoremediation . It has been stated that H. illucens larval gut microbiota represents an optimal ecological niche for isolating enzymes and microbial strains with optimized plastic-degrading ability. H. illucens could be
SECTION 20
#1732783859364880-587: The entire wing. The subcosta reaches the costa independently of vein 1, or joins vein 1 close to where it joins the costa. The leading-edge veins are often markedly stronger than the rest; vein 6 is present and reaches the wing margin, whereas vein 7 is present and does not reach the wing margin. The tibiae are without spurs. Larvae may be either aquatic or terrestrial. In regards to feeding, they may be saprophagous , mycophagous , or predatory. The larvae are apodous and eucephalic and cylindrical-fusiform, depressed dorsoventrally and distinctly segmented. The size of
920-559: The female's ovipositor with his genitals. They mate while stationary and connected. German scientists have successfully bred soldier flies in a space as small as 10 liters. Adults typically mated and oviposited at temperatures of 24 to 40 °C (75 to 104 °F) or more. Around 99.6% of oviposition in the field occurred at 27.5 to 37.5 °C (81.5 to 99.5 °F). Quartz-iodine lamps have been successfully used to stimulate mating of adults. In particular, mating success of reared black soldier fly can be dramatically increased by exposing
960-428: The fly's antennae are elongated and wasp-like, the fly's hind tarsi are pale, as are the wasp's, and the fly has two small, transparent "windows" in the basal abdominal segments that make the fly appear to have a narrow "wasp waist". Black soldier fly larvae can be differentiated from blowfly or housefly larvae by a thin gray-black stripe on their posterior ends. An adult female lays approximately 200 to 600 eggs at
1000-456: The food substrates provided to the larvae, of which the postfeeding ( prepupal ) stage lasts around 7 days. The length of larval stage can be delayed by months due to low temperature or lack of food. The pupal stage lasts from 1 to 2 weeks. Adults can live typically 47 to 73 days when provided with water and food, such as sugar in captivity or nectar in the wild, or survive for about 8 to 10 days on fat reserves gathered during larval stage when water
1040-404: The frass can carry further components that are beneficial for soil fertility and soil health. One of them is the soil improver chitin which gets via chitin-rich shed exoskeletons of the larvae into the frass. Moreover, the frass from black soldier fly rearing applied as a fertilizer can effectively alter the soil microbial community composition, which plays a crucial role for soil fertility. Debate
1080-418: The growth substrate of the larvae, except for oviposition . Larval development takes place with a variable number of moults ; depending on the species, up to 10 larval stages occur. Particularly well known is the post embryonic development of Hermetia illucens , whose larvae develop through six stages. Species of this fly may travel along with members of Polybioides raphigastra (a wasp species) through
1120-459: The larvae feed, but in general, it is considered a versatile organic plant fertilizer due to a favorable ratio of three major plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium . The frass is commonly applied by direct mixing with soil and considered a long-term fertilizer with slow nutrient release. Plant trials, though, have found also short-term fertilizing effects comparable to fast-acting, synthetic fertilizers. Next to its nutrient contribution,
1160-498: The latter operating the world's largest insect factory farm in the Netherlands. Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are used to compost waste or convert the waste into animal feed. The wastes include fresh manure and food wastes of both animal and vegetable origin. Fly larvae are among the most efficient animals at converting biomass into feed. When the larvae have completed their larval development through six instars , they enter
1200-424: The mature larva is variable, depending on the species, from less than 1 cm in length up to 5 cm. The head is much narrower than the thorax and partially sunken into it. The integument is strongly sclerotized with the cuticle containing inclusions of calcium carbonate with hexagonal crystals which form a characteristic microsculpture. In aquatic species, the last urite is thin and more or less elongated forming
1240-415: The microorganisms in the grub bin or compost pile). Heat stimulates the grubs to crawl off, pupate, and hatch, and a great deal of light and heat seem to be required for breeding. Many small-scale grub farmers build their larval colonies from eggs deposited by wild soldier flies. Newly emerged soldier flies perform the beginning of their mating ritual in flight. The male grabs onto the female, and then grasps
Hermetia illucens - Misplaced Pages Continue
1280-896: The other over the abdomen. The Stratiomyinae are a subfamily that tend to have an affinity to aquatic environments. In English, the Stratiomidi are commonly called soldier flies, in German Waffenfliegen ("armed flies"). In the Italian language, Duméril (1832) used the common names term stratiomidi and mosche armate in the Dizionario delle Scienze Naturali ( Dictionary of Natural Sciences ). The name might originate from thoracic spines of adults that resemble armor or striped larvae that resemble uniformed soldiers. These flies range from very small to large, 3 to 20 mm long. They have antennae in three segments, with
1320-403: The outside and like soft meat on the inside. The taste is nutty and a bit meaty. BSFL can be used to produce grease , which is usable in the pharmaceutical industry ( cosmetics , surfactants for shower gel), thereby replacing other vegetable oils such as palm oil, or it can be used in fodder. BSFL can be used to produce chitin . Chitin is used in shipping as an agent against biofouling . It
1360-528: The practice of mimicry. The Stratiomyidae are closely related to the family of Xylomyidae , with which they share 10 synapomorphies , and they form a monophyletic clade with the family of Pantophthalmidae with which they share 5 synapomorphies. Stratiomyidae Xylomyidae Pantophthalmidae Protix Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include
1400-541: The protein production, fly larvae also produce another valuable resource called frass . Fly larval frass is a granulated and odorless residue that can be used as organic fertilizer directly or through conversion by earthworms. Recent research in the field of entomoremediation shows the potential of this insect for purification of biomass contaminated with heavy metals. Black soldier fly larvae are used as feed . The harvested pupae and prepupae are eaten by poultry , fish, pigs , lizards, turtles, and even dogs. The insect
1440-423: The residue produced by the fly larvae, but larvae leachate ("tea") contains enzymes and tends to be too acidic for worms. The activity of larvae can keep temperatures around 37 °C (99 °F), while redworms require cooler temperatures. Most attempts to raise large numbers of larvae with redworms in the same container, at the same time, are unsuccessful. Worms have been able to survive in/under grub bins when
1480-422: The same applies to animal manure in general. The larvae of H. illucens were used in a bioremediation experiment, in which they used up to 49% of dry weight corn leaves polluted with cadmium or zinc, for 36 days. Artificially polluted corn leaves serves here as a model plant material comparable to plant biomass polluted as a result of phytoextraction . The 49% loss of polluted dry weight is a better result than in
1520-641: The shores, seeking the richest vegetation, algae, and debris. Terrestrial larvae are found in organic substrates: in decomposing vegetable matter and animal excreta , in moist soils and litter, under the bark of trees, etc. Inopus rubriceps (Macquart), the sugarcane soldier fly, is a pest : the larvae attack the roots of sugarcane in Australia. Adults visit flowers to feed on the sugar-containing nectar, or else do not feed at all, dedicating their short lives to reproduction. Unlike other dipterous scavengers, adults of Stratiomyidae do not have relationships with
1560-438: The terminal segment annulated. Ocelli are present; the lower orbital bristles are absent. The postvertical orbital bristles are absent, as are the vibrissae. As for the mouthparts, the proboscis is short and not piercing; the maxillary palps are mono- or bisegmented. The wings have either a small discal cell, or the discal cell is absent. No subapical cell is seen, and a closed anal cell is present. The costa does not extend around
1600-504: Was found to be unnecessary for pupation, but substrate is thought to act as a regulator for humidity, which prevents desiccation. A 93% emergence rate was observed when humidity was held at 70%. Redworm farmers often get larvae in their worm bins. Larvae are best at quickly converting "high-nutrient" waste into animal feed. Redworms are better at converting high- cellulose materials (paper, cardboard, leaves, plant materials except wood ) into an excellent soil amendment . Redworms thrive on
#363636