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66-633: Bougainville Island ( Tok Pisin : Bogenvil ) is the main island of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville , which is part of Papua New Guinea . Its land area is 9,300 km (3,600 sq mi). The population of the whole province, including nearby islets such as the Carterets , is approximately 300,000 (2019 census). The highest point is Mount Balbi , on the main island, at 2,715 m (8,907 ft). The much smaller Buka Island , c.  500 km (190 sq mi) , lies to

132-426: A lingua franca . English and Tok Pisin are the languages of official business and government. Other Austronesian languages include Nehan , Petats , Solos , Saposa (Taiof), Hahon and Tinputz , all spoken in the northern quarter of Bougainville, Buka and surrounding islands. These languages are closely related. Bannoni and Torau are Austronesian languages not closely related to the former, which are spoken in

198-462: A first language, in particular the children of parents or grandparents who originally spoke different languages (for example, a mother from Madang and a father from Rabaul ). Urban families in particular, and those of police and defence force members, often communicate among themselves in Tok Pisin, either never gaining fluency in a local language ( tok ples ) or learning a local language as

264-637: A pidgin, drawing vocabulary primarily from English, but also from German , Malay , Portuguese and their own Austronesian languages (perhaps especially Kuanua , that of the Tolai people of East New Britain ). This English-based pidgin evolved into Tok Pisin in German New Guinea (where the German-based creole Unserdeutsch was also spoken). It became a widely used lingua franca and language of interaction between rulers and ruled, and among

330-417: A prefix. Although the word is thought to be derived from "he" or "is", it is not itself a pronoun or a verb but a grammatical marker used in particular constructions, e.g., Kar i tambu long hia is "car forbidden here", i.e., "no parking". Past tense: marked by bin (< Eng. been ): Continuative same tense is expressed through: verb + i stap . Completive or perfective aspect expressed through

396-471: A second (or third) language, after Tok Pisin (and possibly English ). Over the decades, Tok Pisin has increasingly overtaken Hiri Motu as the dominant lingua franca among town-dwellers. Perhaps one million people now use Tok Pisin as a primary language. Tok Pisin is slowly "crowding out" other languages of Papua New Guinea . Tok originates from English talk , but has a wider application, also meaning 'word, speech, language'. Pisin derives from

462-623: Is liklik "little". It is also found on numerals and determiners: Pronouns show person , number , and clusivity . The paradigm varies depending on the local languages; dual number is common, while the trial is less so. The largest Tok Pisin pronoun inventory is, Reduplication is very common in Tok Pisin. Sometimes it is used as a method of derivation; sometimes words just have it. Some words are distinguished only by reduplication: sip "ship", sipsip "sheep". There are only two proper prepositions : Some phrases are used as prepositions, such as ' long namel (bilong)' , "in

528-466: Is also known as a "mixed" language. This means that it consists of characteristics of different languages. Tok Pisin obtained most of its vocabulary from the English language (i.e., English is its lexifier ). The origin of the syntax is a matter of debate. Edward Wolfers claimed that the syntax is from the substratum languages—the languages of the local peoples. Derek Bickerton 's analysis of creoles, on

594-583: Is estimated to have one billion tonnes of copper ore and 12 million ounces of gold. It was later shut down in a revolution against the Australian-run mine. The majority of people on Bougainville are Christian, an estimated 70% being Roman Catholic and a substantial minority United Church of Papua New Guinea since 1968. There are many indigenous languages in Bougainville Province, belonging to three language families. The languages of

660-480: Is indicated by the separate words bai Future (< Eng. by and by ) and bin (past) (< Eng. been ). The present progressive tense is indicated by the word stap  – e.g. Hem kaikai stap "He is eating". The noun does not indicate number, though pronouns do. Adjectives usually take the suffix -pela (now often pronounced -pla , though more so for pronouns, and -pela for adjectives; from "fellow") when modifying nouns; an exception

726-579: Is moderately distinct from that of New Ireland and East New Britain but is much closer to that than it is to the Pijin spoken in the rest of the Solomon Islands. There are 4 sociolects of Tok Pisin: The Tok Pisin alphabet contains 21 letters , five of which are vowels , and four digraphs . The letters are (vowels in bold): Three of the digraphs ( ⟨ai⟩ , ⟨au⟩ , and ⟨oi⟩ ) denote diphthongs while

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792-761: Is the closest to Buka. Bougainville is the largest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago . It was previously the main landmass in the German Empire —associated with the North Solomons . Most of the islands in this archipelago (which are primarily concentrated in the southern and eastern portions of it) are part of the politically independent Solomon Islands . Two of these islands—the closely connected Shortland Islands —are less than 9 km (5.6 mi) south or southeast of Bougainville, and about 30 km (19 mi) west of Choiseul , one of

858-627: Is the main language in the education system, some schools use Tok Pisin in the first three years of elementary education to promote early literacy. There are considerable variations in vocabulary and grammar in various parts of Papua New Guinea, with distinct dialects in the New Guinea Highlands , the north coast of Papua New Guinea, and islands outside of New Guinea. For example, Pidgin speakers from Finschhafen speak rather quickly and often have difficulty making themselves understood elsewhere. The variant spoken on Bougainville and Buka

924-571: Is to be contrasted with Hiri Motu , the lingua franca of Papua , which was derived not from English but from Motu , the vernacular of the indigenous people of the Port Moresby area. Along with English and Hiri Motu , Tok Pisin is one of the three official languages of Papua New Guinea. It is frequently the language of debate in the national parliament . Most government documents are produced in English, but public information campaigns are often partially or entirely in Tok Pisin. While English

990-579: Is visible for many kilometres. In 2013, a magnitude 6.4 earthquake was detected on the Bougainville Island; its epicenter was located 57 kilometers (35.4 miles) south of Panguna , a town on Bougainville Island. Bougainville Island is primarily forested. Copper mining on the island by a Rio Tinto -owned mining operation in Panguna was known for their environmental impacts due to heavy metals . More recently, deforestation in order to feed

1056-753: The Battle of the Coral Sea , the Japanese attempted a landward invasion from the north via the Kokoda Track . From July 1942, a few Australian reserve battalions, many of them very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track , towards Port Moresby, over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges. Local Papuans, called Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels by the Australians, assisted and escorted injured Australian troops down

1122-543: The Bougainville Civil War claimed over 15,000 lives. Peace talks brokered by New Zealand began in 1997 and led to autonomy. A multinational Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) under Australian leadership was deployed. In 2001, a peace agreement was signed, including the promise of a referendum on independence from Papua New Guinea. This referendum was held between 23 November and 7 December 2019, with results being declared on 11 December. The referendum question

1188-781: The Caroline Islands , the Marianas Islands , the Palau Islands ) and Kiautschou in China. German Samoa was assigned to New Zealand; German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Nauru to Australia as League of Nations Mandates : territories "formerly governed [by the Central Powers] and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of

1254-656: The Territory of Papua , with Australian administration beginning in 1906. One of the first actions of Australia's armed forces during World War I was the seizure by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force of German New Guinea and the neighbouring islands of the Bismarck Archipelago in October 1914. Germany administered several territories in the south and central Pacific which

1320-772: The Australian Territory of Papua , forming the Territory of Papua and New Guinea , a United Nations Trust Territory under Australian administration. On 9 September 1975, the Parliament of Australia passed the Papua New Guinea Independence Act 1975 . On 11 September 1975, Bougainville declared itself the Republic of the North Solomons . Though it was later absorbed politically into Papua New Guinea. Between 1988 and 1998,

1386-690: The British requested be captured by Australian and New Zealand forces. On 11 September 1914, a Royal Australian Navy force arrived off Rabaul with the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force and naval troops were landed at Herbertshohe and Kabakaul to search for German radio stations, facing some minor German resistance. Rabaul was occupied, unopposed, on 12 September. The German administration surrendered German New Guinea on 17 September. Australian troops and vessels were subsequently dispatched to occupy Germany's other territories including

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1452-568: The Buna-Gona area. The bitter Battle of Buna-Gona followed in which Australian and United States forces attacked the main Japanese beachheads in New Guinea, at Buna, Sanananda and Gona. Facing tropical disease, difficult terrain and well-constructed Japanese defences, the allies finally achieved victory after experiencing heavy casualties. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were

1518-427: The English word pidgin ; the latter, in turn, may originate in the word business , which is descriptive of the typical development and use of pidgins as inter-ethnic trade languages. While Tok Pisin's name in the language is Tok Pisin , it is also called "New Guinea Pidgin" in English. Papua New Guinean anglophones often refer to Tok Pisin as "Pidgin" when speaking English. This usage of "Pidgin" differs from

1584-671: The Kokoda track. The militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force, returning from action in the Mediterranean theater . The Japanese on the Kokoda Track were ordered to retreat to the coast so the Japanese could focus their efforts on the Battle of Guadalcanal , and the Australians pursued them back to

1650-605: The League of Nations, Germans could no longer be expelled from the territory of a League of Nations mandate. In the 1930s there were 4,500 foreigners in the Mandate New Guinea, four times more than in Papua, including 1,000 Chinese and 400 Germans. In 1921 gold was found in Wau. A few years later, as a result of the gold rush, gold seekers streamed through the port of Salamaua to Wau. In 1926 another, more productive gold field

1716-665: The New Guinea mainland, New Ireland , the Admiralty Islands , the Western Islands , Bougainville , and the German Solomons . The colony remained under Australian military control until 1921. At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference following the war, Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes sought to secure possession of New Guinea from the defeated German Empire: telling the Conference: "Strategically

1782-823: The Territory of New Guinea at all times retained a distinct legal status and identity until the advent of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea . The initial Australian mandate, entitled the Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean situated South of the Equator other than German Samoa and Nauru , was based on the previous German New Guinea , which had been captured and occupied by Australian forces during World War I . Most of

1848-543: The Territory of New Guinea was occupied by Japan during World War II , between 1942 and 1945. During this time, Rabaul , on the island of New Britain , became a major Japanese base (see New Guinea campaign ). After World War II, the territories of Papua and New Guinea were combined in an administrative union under the Papua New Guinea Provisional Administration Act (1945–46). In 1884, Germany formally took possession of

1914-694: The Tok Pisin language are derived from English (with Australian influences), indigenous Melanesian languages, and German (part of the country was under German rule until 1919). Some examples: Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Tok Pisin: Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Territory of New Guinea The Territory of New Guinea

1980-412: The battles for New Britain and New Ireland in the Territory of New Guinea in 1942. Rabaul , the capital of the Territory was overwhelmed on 22–23 January and was established as a major Japanese base from whence they landed on mainland New Guinea and advanced towards Port Moresby and Australia. Having had their initial effort to capture Port Moresby by a seaborne invasion disrupted by the U.S. Navy in

2046-440: The coastal areas of central and south Bougainville. On the nearby Takuu Atoll , a Polynesian language is spoken, Takuu . The Papuan languages are confined to the main island of Bougainville. These include Rotokas , a language with a very small inventory of phonemes, Eivo , Terei, Keriaka , Naasioi (Kieta), Nagovisi , Siwai (Motuna), Baitsi (sometimes considered a dialect of Siwai), Uisai and several others. Cut off from

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2112-478: The end of 1942. Shortly after the start of the Pacific War , New Guinea was invaded by the Japanese. Most of West Papua , at that time known as Dutch New Guinea , was occupied, as were large parts of the Territory of New Guinea but the Territory of Papua was protected to a large extent by its southern location and the near-impassable Owen Stanley Ranges to the north. The New Guinea campaign opened with

2178-537: The eruptions of the volcano Mount Tavurvur and its neighbouring summit Matupit on the Vulcan Island on May 29, 1937, led to extensive destruction of the infrastructure and made the city almost uninhabitable. The seat of the administration of the territory was moved to Lae on the island of New Guinea. When Lae was destroyed by a Japanese air raid on January 20, 1942, Administrator McNicoll moved the administration to Wau. McNicoll contracted malaria and had to resign at

2244-483: The former German colony, which occurred during the tenure of Governor Albert Hahl, stagnated because of the expropriations. Around 268 plantations, 20 larger shops, workshops and operating facilities were sold to new owners. Many of the new plantation owners, often former Australian soldiers, had little experience of farming in tropical climates. Originally, the German missionaries should also be expelled. However, through

2310-508: The fourth, ⟨ng⟩ , is used for both /ŋ/ and /ŋɡ/ . Tok Pisin has a smaller number of phonemes than its lexifier language, English . It has around 24 core phonemes: 5 vowels and around 19 consonants . However, this varies with the local substrate languages and the level of education of the speaker. More educated speakers, and/or those where the substrate language(s) have larger phoneme inventories, may have as many as 10 distinct vowels. Nasal plus plosive offsets lose

2376-493: The growing population has affected the flow of many rivers on the island. The United Nations Environment Programme has offered to facilitate the cleanup of the Panguna mine and explore reopening it with more stringent environmental standards. Bougainville Island has a tropical rainforest climate ( Af on Köppen classification ). The driest month is February. Bougainville has one of the world's largest copper deposits, which has been under development since 1972. The Panguna mine

2442-717: The influence of American and Australian Lutherans, the Neuendettelsau missionaries were able to continue their work and were allowed to travel to New Guinea again from 1928. The Steyler missionaries and the Steyler Missionary Sisters were also affected by the planned deportation. The Apostolic Delegate in Australia, Archbishop Bartolomeo Cattaneo (1866–1933), advocated the whereabouts of the German-speaking Catholic missionaries, from

2508-746: The ingenuity with which the Bougainvillean people survived for almost a decade (1989–1997) without trade or contact with the outside world because of the PNG military blockade. Mr. Pip (2012) is a film by New Zealand director Andrew Adamson based on the book Mister Pip by New Zealand author Lloyd Jones . 6°14′40″S 155°23′02″E  /  6.24444°S 155.38389°E  / -6.24444; 155.38389 Tok Pisin Between five and six million people use Tok Pisin to some degree, although not all speak it fluently. Many now learn it as

2574-486: The island in 1902. During World War I , Australia occupied German New Guinea, including Bougainville. It became part of the Australian Territory of New Guinea under a League of Nations mandate in 1920. In 1942, during World War II , Japan invaded the island, but Allied forces launched the Bougainville campaign to regain control of the island in 1943. Despite heavy bombardments, the Japanese garrisons remained on

2640-437: The island until 1945. Following the war, the Territory of New Guinea, including Bougainville, returned to Australian control. On 18 April 1943, in Bougainville Island, during the Pacific War , the Japanese admiral, commander-in-chief of Combined Fleet Isoroku Yamamoto , died after his plane was attacked by US fighter planes and crashed into the jungle. In 1949, the Territory of New Guinea , including Bougainville, merged with

2706-552: The largely Australian force and the Japanese 18th Army based in New Guinea until the Surrender of Japan to end the war on 2 September 1945. The New Guinea campaign was a major campaign of the Pacific War. In all, some 200,000 Japanese soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the campaign against approximately 7,000 Australian and 7,000 American service personnel. After the war, civil administration of Papua and of New Guinea

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2772-401: The middle of". Several of these features derive from the common grammatical norms of Austronesian languages – although usually in a simplified form. Other features, such as word order , are however closer to English. Sentences which have a 3rd person subject often put the word i immediately before the verb. This may or may not be written separate from the verb, occasionally written as

2838-586: The modern world". Article 22 said: There are territories, such as South-West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to

2904-410: The nearby island of Buka are a single landmass separated by a deep 300-metre (980 ft) wide strait. The island has an area of 9,000 km (3,500 sq mi), and there are several active, dormant or inactive volcanoes that can rise to 2,400 m (7,900 ft). Bagana (1,750 metres [5,740 ft]) in the north central part of Bougainville is conspicuously active, spewing out smoke that

2970-413: The north, across the 400–500 m (1,300–1,600 ft) wide Buka Strait . Even though the strait is narrow, there is no bridge across it, but there is a regular ferry service between the key settlements on either side. The main airstrip in the north is in the town of Buka. Buka has an outcropping that is 175 km (109 mi) from New Ireland . Among the large islands of Papua New Guinea, New Ireland

3036-421: The northeast quarter of New Guinea and it became known as German New Guinea . In the same year, the British government proclaimed a protectorate over the southeastern quarter of New Guinea. The protectorate, called British New Guinea , was annexed by Britain outright on 4 September 1888. The territory was transferred to the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia on 18 March 1902, and British New Guinea became

3102-772: The northern end of the island, and some scattered around the coast, belong to the Austronesian family . The languages of the north-central and southern lobes of Bougainville Island belong to the North and South Bougainville families. The most widely spoken Austronesian language is Halia and its dialects, spoken on the island of Buka and the Selau peninsula of Northern Bougainville. The larger languages, such as Nasioi , Korokoro Motuna, Terei , and Halia, are split into dialects that are not always mutually understandable. For general communication, most Bougainvilleans use Tok Pisin as

3168-637: The northern islands (such as New Guinea) encompass Australia like fortresses. They are as necessary to Australia as water to a city." Article 22 of the Treaty of Versailles provided for the division of Germany and the Central Powers ' imperial possessions among the victorious Allies of World War I . In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany's islands north of the equator (the Marshall Islands ,

3234-542: The northern tip of Buka Island to the Nggela Islands . The earliest evidence of human settlement is at Kilu Cave on Buka Island, where the earliest remains are from 26,700 to 18,100 BC. The first settlers were Melanesian people , likely related to modern Papuans and Indigenous Australians . In the 2nd millennium BC, Austronesian people arrived, bringing with them domesticated pigs, chickens, dogs, and obsidian tools. The first European contact with Bougainville

3300-991: The orders of the Sacred Heart Missionaries (MSC), Marists (SM) and the Society of the Divine Word (SVD) ), who held this post in Australia from 1917 to 1933. The Archbishops of Sydney and New York also appealed to the Australian and American governments, asking that the deportation plans be withdrawn. To this day, German missionaries from the Protestant Neuendettelsauer Mission and the Catholic Sacred Heart of Jesus and Steyler missionaries work in Papua New Guinea. From 1926, after Germany joined

3366-486: The other hand, claims that the syntax of creoles is imposed on the grammarless pidgin by its first native speakers: the children who grow up exposed to only a pidgin rather than a more developed language such as one of the local languages or English. In this analysis, the original syntax of creoles is in some sense the default grammar humans are born with. Pidgins are less elaborated than non-Pidgin languages. Their typical characteristics found in Tok Pisin are: Many words in

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3432-586: The outbreak of the Pacific War and Japanese invasion in December 1941 brought about its suspension. The first civilian administrator, Brigadier-General Evan Wisdom , made Rabaul on the island of New Britain the capital of the Australian Mandate New Guinea. The German settlers in the territory of New Guinea were expropriated from 1921 and expelled to Germany, only a few Germans were allowed to stay. The dynamic economic development of

3498-440: The outside world for several years by a Papua New Guinean blockade during the civil war, the islanders suffered many deaths from a lack of medical resources. A 2013 United Nations survey of 843 men found that 62% (530 respondents) of those have raped a woman or girl at least once, with 26% (217 respondents) of the men reported having raped a non-partner, whereas 9% (74 respondents) reported having committed gang rape. Additionally,

3564-445: The plosive element in Tok Pisin e.g. English hand becomes Tok Pisin han . Furthermore, voiced plosives become voiceless at the ends of words , so that English pig is rendered as pik in Tok Pisin. Tok Pisin has five pure vowels : The verb has a suffix, -im (< Eng. him ) to indicate transitivity ( luk , "look"; lukim , "see"). But some verbs, such as kaikai "eat", can be transitive without it. Tense

3630-555: The ruled themselves who did not share a common vernacular. Tok Pisin and the closely related Bislama in Vanuatu and Pijin in the Solomon Islands , which developed in parallel, have traditionally been treated as varieties of a single Melanesian Pidgin English or "Neo-Melanesian" language. The flourishing of the mainly English-based Tok Pisin in German New Guinea (despite the language of the metropolitan power being German)

3696-408: The safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. The British Government, on behalf of Australia, assumed a mandate from the League of Nations for governing the Territory on 17 December 1920. The terms of the mandate were not received in Australia until April 1921. This mandate was enacted and administered by the Australian Government through the New Guinea Act 1920 until

3762-416: The settlements of which, Poroporo, faces Bougainville. In a 2019 referendum , the citizens of Bougainville voted to become independent from Papua New Guinea by 2027, but the referendum was non-binding on the Papua New Guinea government, which has not committed to this. During the Last Ice Age , present-day Bougainville Island was part of a single landmass known as "Greater Bougainville", which spanned from

3828-405: The single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces. The Supreme Commander of operations was the United States General Douglas Macarthur , with Australian General Thomas Blamey taking a direct role in planning and operations being essentially directed by staff at New Guinea Force headquarters in Port Moresby. Bitter fighting continued in New Guinea between

3894-411: The survey also found that 8% (67 respondents) of the men had raped other men or boys. The Coconut Revolution , a documentary about the struggle of the indigenous population to save their island from environmental destruction and gain independence, was made in 1999. An Evergreen Island (2000), a film by Australian documentary filmmakers Amanda King and Fabio Cavadini of Frontyard Films , showed

3960-590: The term pidgin (language) as used in linguistics. Tok Pisin is not a pidgin in the latter sense, since it has become a first language for many people (rather than simply a lingua franca to facilitate communication with speakers of other languages). As such, it is considered a creole in linguistic terminology. The Tok Pisin language is a result of Pacific Islanders intermixing, when people speaking numerous different languages were sent to work on plantations in Queensland and various islands (see South Sea Islander and blackbirding ). The labourers began to develop

4026-464: The word pinis (< Eng. finish ): Transitive words are expressed through -im (< Eng. him ): Future is expressed through the word " bai " (< Eng. by and by ): Tok Pisin is a language that developed out of regional dialects of the languages of the local inhabitants and English, brought into the country when English speakers arrived. There were four phases in the development of Tok Pisin that were laid out by Loreto Todd. Tok Pisin

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4092-408: Was a choice between greater autonomy within Papua New Guinea or full independence. Of the valid votes, 98.31% were in favour of full independence. The vote is not binding; the Government of Papua New Guinea has the final say on the status of Bougainville. Bougainville is the largest island in the Solomon Islands archipelago. It is part of the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion . Bougainville and

4158-424: Was an Australian -administered League of Nations and then United Nations trust territory on the island of New Guinea from 1914 until 1975. In 1949, the Territory and the Territory of Papua were established in an administrative union by the name of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea . That administrative union was renamed as Papua New Guinea in 1971. Notwithstanding that it was part of an administrative union,

4224-544: Was found on Edie Creek near Wau. Since there were no roads yet and the transport over mountain paths was very laborious for the gold prospectors, it was necessary to fly in the heavy equipment. In 1937 and 1938, Bulolo Gold Dredging & Co and Guinea Airways moved more air freight with four Junkers G 31 cargo planes between Lae and Wau than in the rest of the world combined. Wisdom was replaced on June 13, 1933, by Brigadier General Thomas Griffiths. Brigadier General Walter Ramsay McNicoll followed on September 13, 1934. In Rabaul,

4290-445: Was in 1768, when the French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville arrived and named the main island after himself. British and American whaling ships visited the island for provisions, water, and wood in the 19th century. The first on record was the Roscoe in 1822, and the last was Palmetto in 1881. Later, the German Empire laid claim to Bougainville in 1899, annexing it into German New Guinea . Christian missionaries arrived on

4356-431: Was restored, and under the Papua New Guinea Provisional Administration Act, 1945–46, Papua and New Guinea were combined in a new administrative union. The Papua and New Guinea Act 1949 united the Territory of Papua and the Territory of New Guinea as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea . However, for the purposes of Australian nationality a distinction was maintained between the two territories. The act provided for

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