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44-496: The settlement of Boksity ( Бокси́ты ) was established in 1929 to house the workers of the local bauxite mine. It was a part of Tikhvinsky District of Leningrad Oblast. In December 1934, the construction of a bauxite plant started. In 1935, the settlement was granted urban-type settlement status and given its present name. In 1940, the population neared 10,000 and a school, kindergarten, nursery, ambulatory and drugstore, several canteens, and shops were built. In 1950, Boksitogorsk

88-415: A Lambertian reflector . An example is kaolinite . A distinction is sometimes drawn between dull minerals and earthy minerals, with the latter being coarser, and having even less lustre. Greasy minerals resemble fat or grease. A greasy lustre often occurs in minerals containing a great abundance of microscopic inclusions, with examples including opal and cordierite , jadeite . Many minerals with

132-519: A municipal division , Boksitogorskoye Settlement Municipal Formation is incorporated within Boksitogorsky Municipal District as Boksitogorskoye Urban Settlement . Population: 16,585 ( 2010 Census ) ; 18,128 ( 2002 Census ) ; 21,839 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . The town population reached its peak in 1979, at 23,200 people. Like much of Russia, the population of Boksitogorsk has gradually decreased since

176-496: A sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 150 to 200 °C (300 to 390 °F). At these temperatures, the aluminium is dissolved as sodium aluminate (the Bayer process ). The aluminium compounds in the bauxite may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (AlOOH) or diaspore (AlOOH); the different forms of the aluminium component will dictate the extraction conditions. The undissolved waste, bauxite tailings , after

220-510: A greasy lustre also feel greasy to the touch. Metallic (or splendent ) minerals have the lustre of polished metal, and with ideal surfaces will work as a reflective surface . Examples include galena , pyrite and magnetite . Pearly minerals consist of thin transparent co-planar sheets. Light reflecting from these layers give them a lustre reminiscent of pearls . Such minerals possess perfect cleavage , with examples including muscovite and stilbite . Resinous minerals have

264-450: A moist slurry forms in the can, then there is a likelihood for the cargo to liquefy; although conversely, even if the sample remains dry it does not conclusively prove that it will remain that way, or that it is safe for loading. Bauxite is the main source of the rare metal gallium . During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process , gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor. From this it can be extracted by

308-436: A particular mineral species). The terms are frequently combined to describe intermediate types of lustre (for example, a "vitreous greasy" lustre). Some minerals exhibit unusual optical phenomena, such as asterism (the display of a star-shaped luminous area) or chatoyancy (the display of luminous bands, which appear to move as the specimen is rotated). A list of such phenomena is given below. Adamantine minerals possess

352-461: A petition against the mining of bauxite that was signed by 135 accomplished and well known "Intellectuals". This petition helped unite the scattered anti-bauxite movement into a unified opposition against the state. These acts of governmental defiance were met with repressive state actions. Many domestic online reporters were arrested, and legislative action was taken to repress scientific research. Most of India's bauxite ore reserves, which are among

396-543: A relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium and gallium . Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite ( Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), mixed with the two iron oxides goethite (FeO(OH)) and haematite ( Fe 2 O 3 ), the aluminium clay mineral kaolinite ( Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ) and small amounts of anatase ( TiO 2 ) and ilmenite ( FeTiO 3 or FeO·TiO 2 ). Bauxite appears dull in luster and

440-586: A superlative lustre, which is most notably seen in diamond . Such minerals are transparent or translucent, and have a high refractive index (of 1.9 or more). Minerals with a true adamantine lustre are uncommon, with examples including cerussite , zircon , and cubic zirconia . Minerals with a lesser (but still relatively high) degree of lustre are referred to as subadamantine , with some examples being garnet and corundum . Dull (or earthy ) minerals exhibit little to no lustre, due to coarse granulations which scatter light in all directions, approximating

484-458: A temperature in excess of 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). This aluminium oxide is dissolved at a temperature of about 960 °C (1,760 °F) in molten cryolite . Next, this molten substance can yield metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of electrolysis, which is called the Hall–Héroult process , named after its American and French discoverers. Prior to

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528-499: A variety of methods. The most recent is the use of ion-exchange resin . Achievable extraction efficiencies critically depend on the original concentration in the feed bauxite. At a typical feed concentration of 50 ppm, about 15 percent of the contained gallium is extractable. The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams. Bauxite is also a potential source for vanadium . The social and environmental impacts of bauxite extraction are well documented. Most of

572-665: A youth march. In 2020, A Rocha Ghana also sued the government over the drilling in the reserve after they failed to provide a statement explaining their actions. In early 2009, the Vietnamese Government proposed a plan to mine remote regions of the central highlands. This proposal was highly controversial and sparked a nationwide debate and the most significant domestic conflict since the Vietnam War . Government scientists, journalists, religious leaders, retired high level state officials, and General Võ Nguyên Giáp ,

616-453: Is one of the only two upland evergreen forests in Ghana, and makes up a significant portion of the remaining 20% of forested habitat left in Ghana. The Atewa range falls under the jurisdiction of Akyem Abuakwa Traditional Area and is overseen by the king known as Okyenhene. In 2013, an NGO called A Rocha Ghana held a summit with the forestry and water resource commission, the minister of lands,

660-515: Is reddish-brown, white, or tan. In 1821, the French geologist Pierre Berthier discovered bauxite near the village of Les Baux in Provence , southern France . Numerous classification schemes have been proposed for bauxite but, as of 1982 , there was no consensus. Vadász (1951) distinguished lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) from karst bauxite ores (carbonate bauxites): In

704-535: Is responsible for alexandrite's characteristic green to red colour change. Alexandrite from the Ural Mountains in Russia is green by daylight and red by incandescent light. Other varieties of alexandrite may be yellowish or pink in daylight and a columbine or raspberry red by incandescent light. The optimum or "ideal" colour change would be fine emerald green to fine purplish red, but this is rare. Iridescence

748-427: Is the 'play' or 'fire' of rainbow-coloured light caused by very thin regular structures or layers beneath the surface of a gemstone. Similar to a thin film of oil on water, these layers interfere with the rays of reflected light, reinforcing some colours and cancelling others. Iridescence is seen at its best in precious opal . Schiller (German, literally "shimmer"), is the metallic iridescence originating from below

792-432: Is the display of a star-shaped luminous area. It is seen in some sapphires and rubies , where it is caused by impurities of rutile . It can also occur in garnet , diopside and spinel . Aventurescence (or aventurization ) is a reflectance effect like that of glitter . It arises from minute, preferentially oriented mineral platelets within the material. These platelets are so numerous that they also influence

836-534: The Boké Region of Guinea have caused in 35 conflicts which include movements of revolts and road blockades. These conflicts have resulted in the loss of human life, the destruction of heavy machinery, and damage to government buildings. The Atewa range in Ghana, classified as an ecologically important forest reserve with an area of 17,400 hectares (43,000 acres), has been is a recent site of conflict and controversy surrounding baxuite mining. The forest reserve

880-582: The Boké Region of Guinea, there has been a significant increase in bauxite mining pressure on the local population. This has resulted in potable water issues, air pollution, food contamination, and land expropriation disputes due to improper compensation. Bauxite mining has led to protests, civil unrest, and violent conflicts in Guinea, Ghana, Vietnam, and India. Guinea has a long history of mining related conflicts between communities and mining companies. Between 2015 and 2018, new bauxite mining operations in

924-520: The Ghana Integrated Bauxite and Aluminium Development Authority Act that would create the legal framework required to develop and establish an integrated bauxite industry. In may of that year, the government began drilling deep holes in the reserve. These actions sparked several protests, including a 95-kilometre (59 mi) march from the reserve to the presidential palace, an informational billboard campaign led by A Rocha Ghana, and

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968-591: The Rayagada district of Odisha . Lustre (mineralogy) Lustre ( British English ) or luster ( American English ; see spelling differences ) is the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal , rock , or mineral . The word traces its origins back to the Latin lux , meaning "light", and generally implies radiance, gloss, or brilliance. A range of terms are used to describe lustre, such as earthy , metallic , greasy , and silky . Similarly,

1012-463: The free surface effect can cause the cargo to shift rapidly inside the hold and make the ship unstable, potentially sinking the ship. One vessel suspected to have been sunk in this way was the MS Bulk Jupiter in 2015. One method which can demonstrate this effect is the "can test", in which a sample of the material is placed in a cylindrical can and struck against a surface many times. If

1056-423: The 1960s and 1980s. Public transport includes several town, suburb, and inter-town bus routes operated by local transport companies. Boksitogorsk contains one cultural heritage monument classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. This is the cinema building. Boksitogorsk is twinned with: Bauxite Bauxite ( / ˈ b ɔː k s aɪ t / ) is a sedimentary rock with

1100-513: The 1980s. The ethnic composition of the town's population is primarily Russian. Several manufacturing enterprises are located in Boksitogorsk, including the aluminum metallurgy plant, which is one of the daughter companies of Rusal , as well as producers of reinforced concrete, alcohol, food, and milk. Companies extracting peat and producing plastic ware also operate out of Boksitogorsk. Autoroute H-3 Dymi –Boksitogorsk– Bochevo runs across

1144-410: The aluminium compounds are extracted contains iron oxides , silica , calcia , titania and some un-reacted alumina . After separation of the residue by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide . The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminium oxide , Al 2 O 3 , by heating in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to

1188-675: The appearance of resin , chewing gum or (smooth-surfaced) plastic. A principal example is amber , which is a form of fossilized resin. Silky minerals have a parallel arrangement of extremely fine fibres, giving them a lustre reminiscent of silk . Examples include asbestos , ulexite and the satin spar variety of gypsum . A fibrous lustre is similar, but has a coarser texture. Submetallic minerals have similar lustre to metal, but are duller and less reflective. A submetallic lustre often occurs in near-opaque minerals with very high refractive indices, such as sphalerite , cinnabar , anthracite , and cuprite . Vitreous minerals have

1232-638: The case of Jamaica , recent analysis of the soils showed elevated levels of cadmium , suggesting that the bauxite originates from Miocene volcanic ash deposits from episodes of significant volcanism in Central America. Australia is the largest producer of bauxite, followed by Guinea and China . Bauxite is usually strip mined because it is almost always found near the surface of the terrain , with little or no overburden . Increased aluminium recycling , which requires less electric power than producing aluminium from ores, may considerably extend

1276-478: The effect may also occur in other minerals such as aquamarine , moonstone and tourmaline . Colour change is most commonly found in alexandrite, a variety of chrysoberyl gemstones. Other gems also occur in colour-change varieties, including (but not limited to) sapphire , garnet , spinel . Alexandrite displays a colour change dependent upon light, along with strong pleochroism . The gem results from small-scale replacement of aluminium by chromium oxide, which

1320-488: The invention of this process, and prior to the Deville process , aluminium ore was refined by heating ore along with elemental sodium or potassium in a vacuum . The method was complicated and consumed materials that were themselves expensive at that time. This made early elemental aluminium more expensive than gold . As a bulk cargo , bauxite is a Group A cargo that may liquefy if excessively moist. Liquefaction and

1364-493: The lustre of glass . (The term is derived from the Latin for glass, vitrum .) This type of lustre is one of the most commonly seen, and occurs in transparent or translucent minerals with relatively low refractive indices. Common examples include calcite , quartz , topaz , beryl , tourmaline and fluorite , among others. Waxy minerals have a lustre resembling wax . Examples include jade and chalcedony . Asterism

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1408-511: The material's body colour. In aventurine quartz , chrome-bearing fuchsite makes for a green stone and various iron oxides make for a red stone. Chatoyant minerals display luminous bands, which appear to move as the specimen is rotated. Such minerals are composed of parallel fibers (or contain fibrous voids or inclusions), which reflect light into a direction perpendicular to their orientation, thus forming narrow bands of light. The most famous examples are tiger's eye and cymophane , but

1452-462: The military leader of anti-colonial revolution, were among the many people across Vietnamese society who opposed the governments plans. In an attempt to stop the spread of information across the globe, the government banned domestic reporters from reporting on bauxite mining. However, reporters turned to Vietnamese language websites and blogs where the reporting and discussion continued. On April 12, 2009, several well-respected Vietnamese scholars started

1496-401: The minister of the environment, and other important stakeholders. They came to the conclusion that no future government should mine bauxite in the region because the reserve is environmentally and culturally significant. In 2016, the government along with NGO's began the process of upgrading the reserved to a national park. However, that year an election took place, and before it became official,

1540-492: The newly elected National Patriotic Party (NPP) rejected the plan. In 2017, the government of Ghana signed a Memorandum of Understanding with China to develop new bauxite mining infrastructure in Ghana. Although there was no official plan to mine the Atewa Forest Reserve, tensions between local communities, NGO and the government began to rise. In 2019, tensions began to reach a peak when the government presented

1584-706: The strip mining process, the biodiversity and habitat once present in the area is completely lost and the hydrological and soil characteristics in the region are permanently altered. Other environmental impacts of bauxite mining include soil degradation , air pollution , and water pollution . Red mud is a highly alkaline sludge, with a high pH around 13, that is a byproduct of the Bayer process .  It contains several elements such as sodium aluminoscilicate , calcium titanate , monohydrate aluminium, and trihydrate aluminium that do not break down in nature. When improperly stored, red mud can contaminate soil and water, which can result in local extinction of all life. Red mud

1628-414: The term vitreous (derived from the Latin for glass , vitrum ) refers to a glassy lustre. A list of these terms is given below. Lustre varies over a wide continuum, and so there are no rigid boundaries between the different types of lustre. (For this reason, different sources can often describe the same mineral differently. This ambiguity is further complicated by lustre's ability to vary widely within

1672-466: The terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Historically, the Indigenous peoples living on these lands have shown resistance to development, and oppose any new bauxite mining projects in the area. This has led to violent conflicts between Indigenous communities and police. On December 16, 2000, police killed three Indigenous protestors and wounded over a dozen more during a protest over a bauxite project in

1716-401: The top ten largest in the world, are located on tribal land. These tribal lands are densely populated and home to over 100 million Indigenous Indian peoples.  The mountain summits located on these lands act as a source of water and greatly contribute to the regions fertility. The Indian bauxite industry is interested in developing this land for aluminum production, which poses great risk to

1760-464: The town. Autoroute A-114 Issad – Pikalyovo – Vologda runs 11 kilometers (6.8 mi) to the north of Boksitogorsk. A local line connects Bolshoy Dvor railway station on the St. Petersburg–Vologda railway line with Boksitogorsk. However, currently there is no passenger service. Domestic flights onboard An-2 and Yak-12 craft to Leningrad and Tikhvin were serviced from the local airfield between

1804-436: The world's bauxite deposits can be found within 1 to 20 metres (3 ft 3 in to 65 ft 7 in) of the earths surface. Strip mining is the most common technique used for extracting shallow bauxite. This process involves removing the vegetation, top soil, and overburden to expose the bauxite ore. The overlying soil is typically stockpiled in order to rehabilitate the mine once operations have finished. During

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1848-401: The world's bauxite reserves. As of 2010 , approximately 70% to 80% of the world's dry bauxite production is processed first into alumina and then into aluminium by electrolysis . Bauxite rocks are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical, and refractory. Bauxite ore is usually heated in a pressure vessel along with

1892-498: Was granted town status and on July 25, 1952 it became the administrative center of Boksitogorsky District. Within the framework of administrative divisions , Boksitogorsk serves as the administrative center of Boksitogorsky District . As an administrative division, it is, together with ten rural localities , incorporated within Boksitogorsky District as Boksitogorskoye Settlement Municipal Formation . As

1936-575: Was responsible for killing all life in the Marcal River in Hungary after a spill occurred in 2010. When red mud dries, it turns into dust that can cause lung disease, cancer and birth defects. In the tropical regions of Asia, central Africa, South America and northern Australia, there has been an increase of bauxite mines on traditional and indigenous lands. This has resulted in a number of negative social impacts on local and indigenous peoples. In

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