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30-480: Shafer, who coined the term "Bodish", used it for two different levels in his classification, called "section" and "branch" respectively: It is now generally accepted that the languages Shafer placed in the first three subgroups are all descended from Old Tibetan , and should be combined as a Tibetic subgroup, with the East Bodish languages as a sister subgroup. More recent classifications omit Rgyalrongic, which

60-661: A consonant sometimes causes surrounding vowels to change by coarticulation or assimilation . In Russian, "soft" (palatalized) consonants are usually followed by vowels that are relatively more front (that is, closer to [i] or [y] ), and vowels following "hard" (unpalatalized) consonants are further back . See Russian phonology § Allophony for more information. In many Slavic languages , palatal or palatalized consonants are called soft , and others are called hard . Some of them, like Russian , have numerous pairs of palatalized and unpalatalized consonant phonemes. Russian Cyrillic has pairs of vowel letters that mark whether

90-722: Is a way of pronouncing a consonant in which part of the tongue is moved close to the hard palate . Consonants pronounced this way are said to be palatalized and are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by affixing the letter ⟨ʲ⟩ to the base consonant. Palatalization is not phonemic in English, but it is in Slavic languages such as Russian and Ukrainian , Finnic languages such as Estonian and Võro , Irish , Marshallese , Kashmiri , and Japanese . In technical terms, palatalization refers to

120-402: Is among the least researched branches of Sino-Tibetan. Languages regarded as members of this family include Bumthang (Michailovsky and Mazaudon 1994; van Driem 1995), Tshangla (Hoshi 1987; Andvik 1999), Dakpa (Lu 1986; Sun et al. 1991), Zhangzhung (Nagano and LaPolla 2001), and maybe Zakhring (Blench & Post 2011). According to Shafer, East Bodish is the most conservative branch of

150-613: Is based on Hill's analysis of Old Tibetan: In Old Tibetan, the glide / w / occurred as a medial, but not as an initial. The Written Tibetan letter ཝ w was originally a digraph representing two Old Tibetan consonants ɦw . In Old Tibetan, syllables can be quite complex with up to three consonants in the onset, two glides, and two coda consonants. This structure can be represented as (C 1 C 2 )C 3 (G 1 G 2 )V(C 4 C 5 ) , with all positions except C 3 and V optional. This allows for complicated syllables like བསྒྲིགས bsgrigs "arranged" and འདྲྭ 'drwa "web", for which

180-475: Is considered a separate branch of Sino-Tibetan. Bradley (1997) also defined a broad "Bodish" group, adding the West Himalayish languages , which Shafer treated as a sibling of his Bodish section. The resulting grouping is roughly equivalent to the " Tibeto-Kanauri " group in other classifications. Within this grouping, Bodish proper is a subgroup with two branches, Tibetic and East Bodish: East Bodish

210-428: Is used as a morpheme or part of a morpheme. In some cases, a vowel caused a consonant to become palatalized, and then this vowel was lost by elision . Here, there appears to be a phonemic contrast when analysis of the deep structure shows it to be allophonic. In Romanian , consonants are palatalized before /i/ . Palatalized consonants appear at the end of the word, and mark the plural in nouns and adjectives, and

240-643: Is voiced) e.g. བསྒྲེ bsgre [βzɡre] and བརྩིས brtsis [ɸrtˢis] . The features of palatalization / i̯ / [Cʲ] and labialization / w / [Cʷ] can be considered separate phonemes, realized as glides in G 1 and G 2 respectively. Only certain consonants are permitted in some syllable slots, as summarized below: In C 2 position, / d / and / ɡ / are in complementary distribution: /ɡ/ appears before / t / , / ts / , /d/ , / n / , / s / , / z / , / l / , and / l̥ / in C 3 , while /d/ appears before / k / , /ɡ/ , / ŋ / , / p / , / b / , and / m / in C 3 . Additionally, /ɡ/

270-419: Is written ⟨k⟩ before /l̥/ . Palatalization /Cʲ/ was phonemically distinct from the onset cluster /Cj/ . This produces a contrast between གཡ ⟨g.y⟩ /ɡj/ and གྱ ⟨gy⟩ /ɡʲ/ , demonstrated by the minimal pair གཡང་ g.yaṅ "sheep" and གྱང་ gyaṅ "also, and". The sounds written with the palatal letters ཅ c, ཇ j, ཉ ny, ཞ zh, and ཤ sh were palatalized counterparts of

300-797: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), palatalized consonants are marked by the modifier letter ⟨ʲ⟩ , a superscript version of the symbol for the palatal approximant ⟨ j ⟩. For instance, ⟨ tʲ ⟩ represents the palatalized form of the voiceless alveolar stop [t] . Prior to 1989 , a subscript diacritic was used in the IPA: ⟨ ᶀ ᶈ ᶆ ᶂ ᶌ ƫ ᶁ ᶇ ᶊ ᶎ ᶅ 𝼓 ᶉ 𝼖 𝼕 ᶄ ᶃ 𝼔 ᶍ ꞕ ⟩, apart from two palatalized fricatives which were written instead with curly-tailed variants, namely ⟨ ʆ ⟩ for [ʃʲ] and ⟨ ʓ ⟩ for [ʒʲ] . (See palatal hook .) The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet marks palatalized consonants by an acute accent , as do some Finnic languages using

330-583: The secondary articulation of consonants by which the body of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate and the alveolar ridge during the articulation of the consonant. Such consonants are phonetically palatalized. "Pure" palatalization is a modification to the articulation of a consonant, where the middle of the tongue is raised, and nothing else. It may produce a laminal articulation of otherwise apical consonants such as /t/ and /s/ . Phonetically palatalized consonants may vary in their exact realization. Some languages add semivowels before or after

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360-530: The Bodish languages. As for grammars of the East Bodish languages , there is Das Gupta (1968) and Lu (2002). Some papers on Kurtöp include Hyslop (2008a, 2008b, 2009). Old Tibetan Old Tibetan refers to the earliest attested form of Tibetan language , reflected in documents from the adoption of writing by the Tibetan Empire in the mid-7th century to the early 9th century. In 816 CE, during

390-643: The Classical future and imperative stems. Old Tibetan has three first person singular pronouns ང ་ ṅa , བདག ་ bdag , and ཁོ་བོ ་ kho-bo , and three first-person plural pronouns ངེད ་ nged , བདག་ཅག ་ bdag-cag , and འོ་སྐོལ་ 'o-skol . The second person pronouns include two singulars ཁྱོད་ khyod and ཁྱོ(ན)་འདའ་ khyo(n) -'da' and a plural ཁྱེད་ khyed . Palatalization (phonetics) In phonetics , palatalization ( / ˌ p æ l ə t ə l aɪ ˈ z eɪ ʃ ən / , US also /- l ɪ -/ ) or palatization

420-634: The Latin alphabet, as in Võro ⟨ ś ⟩ . Others use an apostrophe, as in Karelian ⟨s'⟩ ; or digraphs in j , as in the Savonian dialects of Finnish , ⟨sj⟩ . Palatalization has varying phonological significance in different languages. It is allophonic in English, but phonemic in others. In English, consonants are palatalized when they occur before front vowels or

450-593: The consonant preceding them is hard/soft: ⟨ а ⟩ / ⟨ я ⟩ , ⟨ э ⟩ / ⟨ е ⟩ , ⟨ ы ⟩ / ⟨ и ⟩ , ⟨ о ⟩ / ⟨ ё ⟩ , and ⟨ у ⟩ / ⟨ ю ⟩ . The otherwise silent soft sign ⟨ ь ⟩ also indicates that the previous consonant is soft. Irish and Scottish Gaelic have pairs of palatalized ( slender ) and unpalatalized ( broad ) consonant phonemes. In Irish, most broad consonants are velarized . In Scottish Gaelic,

480-505: The eight cases of Sanskrit . Old Tibetan transitive verbs were inflected for up to four stems, while intransitive verbs only had one or two stems. In the active voice , there was an imperfective stem and a perfective stem, corresponding to the Classical Tibetan present and past stems respectively. Transitive verbs also may have two passive voice stems, a dynamic stem and stative stem. These two stems in turn correspond to

510-829: The front vowel /i/ and not palatalized in other cases. In some languages, palatalization is a distinctive feature that distinguishes two consonant phonemes . This feature occurs in Russian , Irish , and Scottish Gaelic , among others. Phonemic palatalization may be contrasted with either plain or velarized articulation. In many of the Slavic languages , and some of the Baltic and Finnic languages , palatalized consonants contrast with plain consonants, but in Irish they contrast with velarized consonants. Some palatalized phonemes undergo change beyond phonetic palatalization. For instance,

540-445: The only velarized consonants are [n̪ˠ] and [l̪ˠ] ; [r] is sometimes described as velarized as well. Yōon are Japanese moras formed with an added [ j ] sound between the initial consonant and the vowel. For example, 今日 ( kyō , "today") is written きょう [ kʲoo ], using a small version of よ , while 器用 ( kiyō , "skillful") is written きよう [ kijoo ], with a full-sized よ. Historically , yōon were not distinguished with

570-491: The other). In some languages, like English, palatalization is allophonic . Some phonemes have palatalized allophones in certain contexts, typically before front vowels and unpalatalized allophones elsewhere. Because it is allophonic, palatalization of this type does not distinguish words and often goes unnoticed by native speakers. Phonetic palatalization occurs in American English. Stops are palatalized before

600-414: The palatal approximant (and in a few other cases), but no words are distinguished by palatalization ( complementary distribution ), whereas in some of the other languages, the difference between palatalized consonants and plain un-palatalized consonants distinguish es between words, appearing in a contrastive distribution (where one of the two versions, palatalized or not, appears in the same environment as

630-556: The palatalization is heard as both an onglide and an offglide. In some cases, the realization of palatalization may change without any corresponding phonemic change. For example, according to Thurneysen, palatalized consonants at the end of a syllable in Old Irish had a corresponding onglide (reflected as ⟨i⟩ in the spelling), which was no longer present in Middle Irish (based on explicit testimony of grammarians of

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660-411: The palatalized consonant (onglides or offglides). In such cases, the vowel (especially a non-front vowel) following a palatalized consonant typically has a palatal onglide. In Russian , both plain and palatalized consonant phonemes are found in words like большой [bɐlʲˈʂoj] , царь [tsarʲ] and Катя [ˈkatʲə] . In Hupa , on the other hand,

690-756: The phonemic sounds ཙ ts, ཛ dz, ན n, ཟ z, and ས s. Case markers are affixed to entire noun phrases, not to individual words (i.e. Gruppenflexion ). Old Tibetan distinguishes the same ten cases as Classical Tibetan : However, whereas the locative, allative, and terminative gradually fell together in Classical Tibetan (and are referred to the indigenous grammatical tradition as the la don bdun ), in Old Tibetan these three cases are clearly distinguished. Traditional Tibetan grammarians do not distinguish case markers in this manner, but rather distribute these case morphemes (excluding -dang and -bas ) into

720-456: The pronunciations [βzɡriks] and [ɣdrʷa] can be reconstructed. A voicing contrast only exists in slot C 3 and spreads to C 1 and C 2 so སྒོ sgo "door" would be realized as [zɡo] while སྐུ sku "body" would be [sku] . Final consonants are always voiceless e.g. འཛིནད་ 'dzind [ɣd͡zint] and གཟུགས་ gzugs [ gzuks ]. The phoneme / b / in C 1 was likely realized as [ ɸ ] (or [ β ] when C 3

750-415: The reign of Tibetan King Sadnalegs , literary Tibetan underwent comprehensive standardization, resulting in Classical Tibetan . Old Tibetan is characterised by many features that are lost in Classical Tibetan, including my- rather than m- before the vowels -i- and -e- , the cluster sts- which simplifies to s- in Classical Tibetan, and a reverse form of the "i" vowel letter ( gi-gu ). Aspiration

780-859: The second person singular in verbs. On the surface, it would appear then that ban [ban] "coin" forms a minimal pair with bani [banʲ] . The interpretation commonly taken, however, is that an underlying morpheme |-i| palatalizes the consonant and is subsequently deleted. Palatalization may also occur as a morphological feature. For example, although Russian makes phonemic contrasts between palatalized and unpalatalized consonants, alternations across morpheme boundaries are normal: In some languages, allophonic palatalization developed into phonemic palatalization by phonemic split . In other languages, phonemes that were originally phonetically palatalized changed further: palatal secondary place of articulation developed into changes in manner of articulation or primary place of articulation. Phonetic palatalization of

810-586: The smaller kana and had to be determined by context. In the Marshallese language , each consonant has some type of secondary articulation (palatalization, velarization, or labiovelarization ). The palatalized consonants are regarded as "light", and the velarized and rounded consonants are regarded as "heavy", with the rounded consonants being both velarized and labialized. Many Norwegian dialects have phonemic palatalized consonants. In many parts of Northern Norway and many areas of Møre og Romsdal, for example,

840-586: The time). In a few languages, including Skolt Sami and many of the Central Chadic languages , palatalization is a suprasegmental feature that affects the pronunciation of an entire syllable, and it may cause certain vowels to be pronounced more front and consonants to be slightly palatalized. In Skolt Sami and its relatives ( Kildin Sami and Ter Sami ), suprasegmental palatalization contrasts with segmental palatal articulation (palatal consonants). In

870-449: The unpalatalized sibilant (Irish /sˠ/ , Scottish /s̪/ ) has a palatalized counterpart that is actually postalveolar [ʃ] , not phonetically palatalized [sʲ] , and the velar fricative /x/ in both languages has a palatalized counterpart that is actually palatal [ç] rather than palatalized velar [xʲ] . These shifts in primary place of articulation are examples of the sound change of palatalization . In some languages, palatalization

900-529: Was not phonemic and many words were written indiscriminately with consonants from the aspirated or unaspirated series. Most consonants could be palatalized, and the palatal series from the Tibetan script represents palatalized coronals. The sound conventionally transcribed with the letter འ ( Wylie : 'a) was a voiced velar fricative, while the voiceless rhotic and lateral are written with digraphs ཧྲ ⟨hr⟩ and ལྷ ⟨lh⟩ . The following table

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