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193-543: Following the high and late medieval revival of the Byzantine Corpus Juris Civilis in Latin Europe, the "body politic" took on a jurisprudential significance by being identified with the legal theory of the corporation , gaining salience in political thought from the 13th century on. In English law the image of the body politic developed into the theory of the king's two bodies and

386-551: A Veneti uprising in northwestern Gaul. These campaigns led Caesar to seek a five-year extension of his command; to do this, he too would need the support of his allies once more. Over the summer of 56 BC, Caesar met with the leaders of various factions across Cisalpine Gaul. He met with Crassus at Ravenna and Pompey at the town of Luca , the southern-most city in Cisalpine Gaul . The agreement emerged from three relatively compatible aims: Crassus and Pompey desired

579-505: A "three-headed monster"; later historians such as Suetonius and Livy referred to the three as a societas or conspiratio ; the allies themselves "would presumably have referred to it simply as amicitia ". The usage of the term "triumvirate" to describe this political alliance was unattested during the Renaissance . First attested in 1681, the term emerged into widespread use only during the 18th century; for some time, knowledge that

772-663: A body politic. High Middle Ages Central Europe Guelf , Hohenstaufen , and Ascanian domains in Germany about 1176 The High Middle Ages , or High Medieval Period , was the period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages , which ended around AD 1500 (by historiographical convention). Key historical trends of

965-459: A capable supporter of Pompey for the last decade, he was also indebted to Crassus, who was a guarantor of Caesar's debts. Upon his early return from Spain in June 60 BC, he was forced to choose between entering the city to declare candidacy for the consulship, which would dissolve his military command and make him ineligible for a triumph , or staying outside of the city in an attempt to work

1158-457: A century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption or invention of windmills , watermills , printing (though not yet with movable type), gunpowder , the astrolabe , glasses , scissors of the modern shape, a better clock , and greatly improved ships. The latter two advances made possible

1351-414: A comprehensive production of alcohol. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system—notably legumes , the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil. During

1544-543: A divine spark. Other notable scholastics included Muhammad Averroes , Roscelin , Abélard, Peter Lombard , and Francisco Suárez . One of the main questions during this time was the problem of universals . Prominent opponents of various aspects of the scholastic mainstream included Duns Scotus , William of Ockham , Peter Damian , Bernard of Clairvaux , and the Victorines . Christian heresies existed in Europe before

1737-513: A draft proposal for a lex Julia agraria and set it on the senate's agenda. He took a conciliatory approach, respecting the normal order of the senate and also writing a bill that rectified all the criticisms to Rullus' land bill in 63 BC (Cicero opposed that bill in De lege agraria ): Caesar would preserve public lands in Campania, repopulate desolate areas of Italy, move citizens from Rome onto

1930-420: A feature of Roman administration, but this alliance was not counted among them. The term appears nowhere in any ancient source, refers to no official position, and is "completely and obviously erroneous". In the ancient world, the triple alliance was referred to with varying terms: Cicero, contemporaneously, wrote of "three men" ( tris homines ) exercising a regnum ; a satire by Marcus Terentius Varro called it

2123-416: A few months for his provincial assignment to Gaul. His legislative activity, however, came under immediate attack from Domitius and Memmius, who had been elected as praetors during Caesar's electoral comitia the last year, claiming that Caesar had passed the legislation against the auspices. These efforts were utterly unsuccessful – the pro-triumviral consuls allowed debate on the topic for three days – and

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2316-438: A high demand for wine and steady volume of alcohol consumption inspired a viticulture revolution of progress. The relative protection from famine during this time allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in 1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. They also established trade and

2509-589: A human society considered as a collective body, originated in classical Greek and Roman philosophy . The general metaphor emerged in the 6th century BC, with the Athenian statesman Solon and the poet Theognis describing cities ( poleis ) in biological terms as "pregnant" or "wounded". Plato 's Republic provided one of its most influential formulations. The term itself, however—in Ancient Greek , τῆς πόλεως σῶμα , tēs poleōs sōma , "the body of

2702-495: A joint consulship; they also wanted good provincial assignments. Caesar needed an extension in his command to prevent a possible usurpation by Ahenobarbus. Some two hundred senators, mostly of lower rank, attended upon the three men, seeking to ingratiate themselves. The conference also forced a re-evaluation of alliances across the wider aristocracy: the Claudii – both Appius and Publius – and Gaius Cato switched sides back to

2895-533: A key role in European trade from then on, making these cities become major financial centers. From the mid-10th to the mid-11th centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end of Viking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King Cnut of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway. After Cnut's death in 1035, England and Norway were both lost, and with

3088-429: A magistrate would address the people) where he requested Bibulus explain his opposition. When Bibulus failed to articulate any meaningful objections, beyond that "he would not permit any innovation", Caesar pled with him before the people, leading Bibulus to exclaim in frustration that "you will not have this law this year, not even should you all want it!", a violation of the norm of popular sovereignty. Seeking to avoid

3281-478: A one-third write-down of the tax bills owed by the publicani for Crassus, and second, for ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the senate. Lucullus, attempting to oppose Pompey's eastern settlement, was "forced into public humiliation on his knees before Caesar" when the consul threatened prosecution. When Cicero, defending his former co-consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida , made an off-hand remark complaining about

3474-429: A pact was sought – places the formation of the alliance some time between July 60 and January 59 BC. The purpose of the alliance was to secure something that none of the three men could secure alone. If Pompey and Caesar aligned alone, they would not likely be able to overcome opposition to Pompey's proposals in the senate. Pompey and Crassus were personal rivals who could only align through an intermediary. Caesar

3667-474: A policy of confrontation with Caesar. Deteriorating trust through 50 BC, along with the influence of Catonian anti-Caesarian hardliners on Pompey, eventually pushed Caesar into open rebellion in January 49 BC. The term "First Triumvirate", while well-known, is a misleading one which is regularly avoided by modern scholars of the late republic. Boards of a certain number of men such as decemviri were

3860-422: A powerful popular following which the fraying alliance was unwilling to oppose. He also quickly won over the consuls of that year by promising them the plum provincial assignments they needed to avoid bankruptcy. Later in the year 58, Clodius started to openly criticise the triumvirs, especially Pompey, forcing him into self-seclusion in his home. He also attacked Caesar's legislation on religious grounds. Pompey

4053-422: A previous command against Mithridates , Pompey's recent divorce of Celer's half-sister in a failed attempt to form a marriage alliance with Cato, and also by their fear of Pompey's power, led to an obstructive coalition. Lucullus returned from his semi-retirement to demand an in-depth review of every aspect of Pompey's eastern arrangements ; "this would take a tremendous amount of time and would prevent passage of

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4246-478: A private body corporate. The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the theory of the state as an artificial body politic in the 1851 case Cotton v. United States , declaring that "every sovereign State is of necessity a body politic, or artificial person, and as such capable of making contracts and holding property, both real and personal", and differentiated the United States' powers as a sovereign from its rights as

4439-627: A religious experience and became a preacher. He founded the Waldensians which became a Christian sect believing that all religious practices should have strictly scriptural bases. Waldo was denied the right to preach his sermons by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which he did not obey and continued to speak freely until he was excommunicated in 1184. Waldo was critical of the Christian clergy saying they did not live according to

4632-469: A result of the First Crusade . In the context of the crusades, monastic military orders were founded that would become the template for the late medieval chivalric orders . The Knights Templar were a Christian military order founded after the First Crusade to help protect Christian pilgrims from hostile locals and highway bandits. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307 Philip

4825-473: A series of favourable senatorial decrees to provide more funds for his troops in Gaul – above Cicero's objections that Caesar could have paid for them out of his spoils – and granted his request to have ten legates ( decem legati ) sent to aid in administration and senatorial settlement of the region's affairs. Caesar's successes at this point had made him extremely popular among the people and in general across

5018-543: A similar bill distributing land to his veterans; he also had sent subordinates back to Rome to stand for the tribunate in attempts to bring the relevant legislation forward (an attempt in 63 BC was opposed by then-consul Cicero in De lege agraria ). Further attempts in 62 BC had led to his allied tribune fleeing the city. While he was successful in getting one of his men, Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus , elected consul for 61 BC, an intervening religious scandal had made it impossible for him to push forward

5211-679: A single family. During the High Middle Ages Lithuania emerged as a Duchy of Lithuania in the early 13th century, then briefly becoming the Kingdom of Lithuania from 1251 to 1263. After the assassination of its first Christian king Mindaugas Lithuania was known as Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Unconquered during the Lithuanian Crusade , Lithuania itself rapidly expanded to the East due to conquests and became one of

5404-609: A statement that would become accepted international law . The tension between organic understandings of the body politic and theories emphasizing its artificial character formed a theme in English political debates in this period. Writing in 1780, during the American Revolutionary War , the British reformist John Cartwright emphasised the artificial and immortal character of the body politic in order to refute

5597-629: A strong figure in the consulship". Against the later literary sources, however, a contemporaneous letter to Cicero, where Caesar asked to form a political alliance, also implies Caesar had not yet reconciled Pompey and Crassus by December of 60, months after his election in the summer. Erich Gruen, in Last Generation of the Roman Republic , believes this letter, combined with the fact that Pompey and Crassus would have alienated each-other with any overt support for Caesar's candidacy, places

5790-680: A successful Vlach-Bulgarian rebellion in 1185 , and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines in Greece, some parts of Macedonia , and Thrace , the Bulgarians in Moesia and most of Thrace and Macedonia, and the Serbs to the northwest. Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the 11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the 12th century, in 1204

5983-418: A tribunician veto, Caesar exposed his alliance, summoning Pompey and Crassus. Pompey, when asked what he would do if opponents should use violence to disrupt the bill's passage, said "he would provide a shield if anyone dared to raise a sword in opposition". Bibulus responded by mobilising three tribunes to veto the bill (alternatively, he may have wanted to declare bad omens to prevent voting, or both). During

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6176-471: A triumph from the senate. While the senate had regularly permitted candidacies in absentia , Cato filibustered Caesar's request; Caesar, shockingly, gave up his triumphal eligibility to declare his candidacy. Caesar was the known favorite for the consulship; to hobble him, Cato and his allies took two actions. They sought to assign the yet-to-be-elected consuls of 59 BC to home defence in Italy and sought

6369-502: A tyrant, with "dire warnings of the impending overthrow of the republican government" that discredited the alliance and forced senators to re-evaluate their tacit support. Crassus revelled in Pompey's discomfitures before the people; this unpopularity frayed at the alliance between the three men, which was meant only to secure for them aims which they could not achieve by themselves. Upon the conclusion of Caesar's consulship, he left after

6562-417: A wavering ally, a supporter of the triumvirate ( Gaius Memmius ), and an opponent ( Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus ) banded together. The consuls, concerned that they would be precluded from holding military command due to the lack of a requisite lex curiata , promised to throw their support behind the two candidates in exchange for choice provinces and their securing false testimony from three augurs to swear that

6755-427: A weapon, was the realm's justice. The body's feet were the common people. Each member of the body had its vocation , and each was beholden to work in harmony for the benefit of the whole body. In the Late Middle Ages , the concept of the corporation , a legal person made up of a group of real individuals, gave the idea of a body politic judicial significance. The corporation had emerged in imperial Roman law under

6948-482: A whole, these various elections showed the weakness of the triumviral coalition: Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus were unable to produce consistently favourable results except when their aims were entirely united; the joint consulship in 55 BC was brought about by force and, "thereafter, their [the alliance's] stock with the voters rapidly depreciated". In spring of 53 BC, while Rome dealt with its own political crisis, Crassus launched his invasion of Syria and Caesar

7141-485: Is "misleading in equating the position of the 50s with the official triumvirate of Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian", preferring "alliance" and "Big Three". Books by Andrew Lintott and Richard Billows also have avoided invocation of "First Triumvirate". Others add more reasons to avoid its use, for example, Robert Morstein-Marx in the 2021 book Julius Caesar and the Roman People , "it is almost impossible to use

7334-536: Is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts. The Albigensians were strong in southern France, northern Italy, and the southwestern Holy Roman Empire . The Bogomils were strong in the Southeastern Europe , and became the official religion supported by the Bosnian kings . Peter Waldo of Lyon was a wealthy merchant who gave up his riches around 1175 after

7527-468: Is said that it has no heir, because it always lives on in itself". From here, the image of the body politic became prominent in the medieval imagination. In Canto XVIII of his Paradiso , for instance, Dante , writing in the early 14th century, presents the Roman Empire as a corporate body in the form of an imperial eagle, its body made of souls. The French court writer Christine de Pizan discussed

7720-578: Is truth." The English term "body politic" is sometimes used in modern legal contexts to describe a type of legal person , typically the state itself or an entity connected to it. A body politic is a type of taxable legal person in British law , for example, and likewise a class of legal person in Indian law . In the United States , a municipal corporation is considered a body politic, as opposed to

7913-483: The British governor of Massachusetts and a proponent of American liberty, drew on Hobbes's theory in his 1752 Principles of Polity to argue that "the whole Body politic" should be conceived as "one Person"; states were "distinct Persons and independent". At around the same time, the Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel pronounced that "states are bodies politic", "moral persons" with their own "understanding and ... will",

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8106-560: The Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was significantly more eastern. Germany was under the banner of the Holy Roman Empire , which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power under Kaiser Frederick Barbarossa . During the successful reign of King David IV of Georgia (1089–1125),

8299-502: The Commonwealth presented alternative figurations of the metaphor in defence of the parliamentarian model. James Harrington , in his 1656 Commonwealth of Oceana , argued that "the delivery of a Model Government ... is no less than political Anatomy"; it must "imbrace all those Muscles, Nerves, Arterys and Bones, which are necessary to any Function of a well order'd Commonwealth". Invoking William Harvey 's recent discovery of

8492-717: The Crusader States in the Levant . Other wars led to the Northern Crusades . The Christian kingdoms took much of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim control, and the Normans conquered southern Italy, all part of the major population increases and the resettlement patterns of the era. The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works . The age also saw

8685-628: The Early Middle Ages was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . Most of them were studied only in Latin as knowledge of Greek was very limited. This scenario changed during the Renaissance of the 12th century . The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities . The increased contact with

8878-532: The First Triumvirate in 59 BC, Cicero described the Roman state as "dying of a new sort of disease". Lucan 's Pharsalia , written in the early imperial era in the 60s AD, abounded in this kind of imagery. Depicting the dictator Sulla as a surgeon out of control who had butchered the Roman body politic in the process of cutting out its putrefied limbs, Lucan used vivid organic language to portray

9071-691: The Fourth Crusade treacherously captured Constantinople . This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately weakened by the Seljuks and the rising Ottoman Empire in the 14–15th century. The power of the Latin Empire , however, was short-lived after the Crusader army was routed by Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan in the Battle of Adrianople (1205) . The Medieval Warm Period ,

9264-613: The Hanseatic League , a federation of free cities to advance trade by sea, was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city of Lübeck , which would later dominate the League, in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire became Hanseatic cities, including Amsterdam , Cologne , Bremen , Hanover and Berlin. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance, Bruges and

9457-669: The Kingdom of Georgia grew in strength and expelled the Seljuk Empire from its lands. David's decisive victory in the Battle of Didgori (1121) against the Seljuk Turks, as a result of which Georgia recaptured its lost capital Tbilisi , marked the beginning of the Georgian Golden Age . David's granddaughter Queen Tamar continued the upward rise, successfully neutralizing internal opposition and embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by further decline of

9650-574: The Macedonian and Komnenos dynasties gradually gave way to the resurrected Serbia and Bulgaria and to a successor crusader state (1204 to 1261), who continually fought each other until the end of the Latin Empire. The Byzantine Empire was reestablished in 1261 with the recapture of Constantinople from the Latins, though it was no longer a major power and would continue to falter through

9843-644: The Matter of France (stories about Charlemagne and his court), the Acritic songs dealing with the chivalry of Byzantium's frontiersmen, and perhaps the best known cycle, the Matter of Britain , which featured tales about King Arthur , his court, and related stories from Brittany , Cornwall , Wales and Ireland. An anonymous German poet tried to bring the Germanic myths from the Migration Period to

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10036-458: The Romanesque style by combining flying buttresses , gothic (or pointed) arches and ribbed vaults . It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time, being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky forms of the previous Romanesque style . It

10229-612: The Silk Road to China. Westerners became more aware of the Far East when Polo documented his travels in Il Milione . He was followed by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as William of Rubruck , Giovanni da Pian del Carpine , André de Longjumeau , Odoric of Pordenone , Giovanni de' Marignolli , Giovanni di Monte Corvino , and other travellers such as Niccolò de' Conti . Philosophical and scientific teaching of

10422-403: The circulatory system , Harrington presented the body politic as a dynamic system of political circulation, comparing his ideal bicameral legislature , for example, to the ventricles of the human heart. In contrast to Hobbes, the "head" was once more dependent on the people: the execution of the law must follow the law itself, so that " Leviathan may see, that the hand or sword that executeth

10615-526: The intensive agriculture -prevalent model in Muslim-ruled lands did not require territorial expansion. While Muslim lands enjoyed a certain demographic and financial edge , Almoravids and Almohads from northern Africa featured volatile state structures; barring (unsuccessful) attempts to take Toledo, they did not stand out for carrying out an expansionist policy. In Italy, with the Norman conquest,

10808-530: The 11th century but only in small numbers and of local character: in most cases, a rogue priest, or a village returning to pagan traditions. However, beginning in the 11th century, mass-movement heresies appeared. The roots of this can be partially sought in the rise of urban cities, free merchants, and a new money-based economy. The rural values of monasticism held little appeal to urban people who began to form sects more in tune with urban culture. The first large-scale heretical movements in Western Europe originated in

11001-423: The 11th century on in the form corpus reipublicae ( mysticum ), "(mystical) body of the commonwealth". Parallel terms exist in other European languages, such as Italian corpo politico , Polish ciało polityczne , and German Staatskörper ("state body"). An equivalent early modern French term is corps-état ; contemporary French uses corps politique . The Western concept of the "body politic", originally meaning

11194-527: The 12th century, the Cluny monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation of orders of chivalry , such as the Templar Knights . Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became another inheritable title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries. The East–West Schism of 1054 formally separated

11387-542: The 13th century had a great impact on the east of Europe , as many countries of the region were invaded, pillaged, conquered or vassalized. During the first half of this period ( c.  1025 —1185), Byzantine Empire dominated the Southeast Europe , and under the Komnenian emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanization; however, their domination of Southeast Europe was coming to an end with

11580-485: The 14th century, with remnants lasting until the mid 15th century. In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began a more intensive settlement, targeting "new" lands, some areas of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Western Roman Empire . In what historian Charles Higounet called the "great clearances", Europeans cleared and cultivated some of the vast forests and marshes that lay across much of

11773-795: The 19th century. That trend faltered during the Late Middle Ages because of a series of calamities , most notably the Black Death , but also numerous wars as well as economic stagnation. From around 780, Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more socially and politically organized. The Carolingian Renaissance stimulated scientific and philosophical activity in Northern Europe. The first universities started operating in Bologna , Oxford , Paris , Salamanca , Cambridge and Modena . The Vikings settled in

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11966-651: The British Isles, France and elsewhere, and Norse Christian kingdoms started developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian Kingdom of Hungary had become a recognized state in Central Europe that was forming alliances with regional powers. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, major nomadic incursions ceased. The powerful Byzantine Empire of

12159-492: The Christian church into two parts: Roman Catholicism in Western Europe and Eastern Orthodoxy in the east. It occurred when Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other, mainly over disagreement over the filioque , an addition to the creed concerning the origin of the Holy Spirit, as well as disputes as to the existence of papal authority over the four Eastern patriarchs , use of unleavened bread in

12352-506: The Crown as corporation sole . The metaphor was elaborated further from the Renaissance onwards, as medical knowledge based on Galen was challenged by thinkers such as William Harvey . Analogies were drawn between supposed causes of disease and disorder and their equivalents in the political field, viewed as plagues or infections that might be remedied with purges and nostrums . The 17th century writings of Thomas Hobbes developed

12545-452: The Crown as an ordinary corporation aggregate, that is, a corporation of many people, with a view to describing the legal personhood of the state. A related but contrasting concept in France was the doctrine termed by Sarah Hanley the king's one body, summarised by Jean Bodin in his own 1576 pronouncement that "the king never dies". Rather than distinguishing the immortal body politic from

12738-401: The Fair (Philippine le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of alleged heresy. The Knights Hospitaller were originally a Christian organization founded in Jerusalem in 1080 to provide care for poor, sick, or injured pilgrims to the Holy Land . After Jerusalem was taken in the First Crusade, it became a religious / military order that was charged with

12931-415: The French laws of succession as established by the "whole civic or mystical body of the realm", and the Parlement of Paris in 1489 proclaimed itself a "mystical body" composed of both ecclesiastics and laymen, representing the "body of the king". From at least the 14th century, the doctrine developed that the French kings were mystically married to the body politic; at the coronation of Henry II in 1547, he

13124-425: The High Middle Ages include the rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era, and the Renaissance of the 12th century , including the first developments of rural exodus and urbanization . By 1350, the robust population increase had greatly benefited the European economy, which had reached levels that would not be seen again in some areas until

13317-501: The High Middle Ages, the idea of a Christian warrior started to change as Christianity grew more prominent in Medieval Europe. The Codes of Chivalry promoted the ideal knight to be selfless, faithful, and fierce against those who threaten the weak. Household heavy cavalry ( knights ) became common in the 11th century across Europe, and tournaments were invented. Tournaments allowed knights to establish their family name while being able to gather vast wealth and renown through victories. In

13510-423: The Holy Lands, the order moved to Transylvania in 1211 and later, after being expelled, invaded pagan Prussia with the intention of Christianizing the Baltic region . Yet, both before and after the Order's main pagan opponent, Lithuania , converted to Christianity, the Order had already attacked other Christian nations such as Novgorod and Poland . The Teutonic Knights' power hold, which became considerable,

13703-440: The Islamic world in Spain and Sicily during the Reconquista , and the Byzantine world and Muslim Levant during the Crusades , allowed Europeans access to scientific Arabic and Greek texts, including the works of Aristotle , Alhazen , and Averroes . The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. At

13896-585: The Law is in it, and not above it". In Germany, Samuel von Pufendorf recapitulated Hobbes's explanation of the origin of the state as a social contract, but extended his notion of personhood to argue that the state must be a specifically moral person with a rational nature, and not simply coercive power. In the 18th century, Hobbes's theory of the state as an artificial body politic gained wide acceptance both in Britain and continental Europe. Thomas Pownall , later

14089-573: The Laws of England (1765), summarised the doctrine of the king's body politic as it subsequently developed after the Restoration : the king "in his political capacity" manifests "absolute perfection "; he can "do no wrong", nor even is he capable of " thinking wrong"; he can have no defect, and is never in law "a minor or under age". Indeed, Blackstone says, if an heir to the throne should accede while "attainted of treason or felony", his assumption of

14282-525: The Members ", told in relation to the first secessio plebis , the temporary departure of the plebeian order from Rome in 495–93 BC. On the account of the Roman historian Livy , a senator explained the situation to the plebeians by a metaphor: the various members of the Roman body had become angry that the "stomach", the patricians , consumed their labours while providing nothing in return. However, upon their secession, they became feeble and realised that

14475-561: The Parthians. Still at this point, Caesar and Pompey were on friendly terms. Caesar praised Pompey, for example, for lending one of Pompey's Spanish legions to help against the Gauls, a private military arrangement which Cato criticised in the senate for usurping senatorial prerogatives on legionary assignments. The consuls immediately prepared to hold elections for 52 BC, which proved impossible when they were injured by stones thrown by

14668-637: The Platonist-Augustinian belief that the mind is an immaterial substance. The most famous of the scholastics was Thomas Aquinas (later declared a " Doctor of the Church "), who led the move away from the Platonic and Augustinian and towards Aristotelianism. Aquinas developed a philosophy of mind by writing that the mind was at birth a tabula rasa ("blank slate") that was given the ability to think and recognize forms or ideas through

14861-649: The Polish city of Gdańsk (Danzig), as well as Königsberg, capital of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. In Bergen , Norway and Veliky Novgorod , Russia the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonising Europe beyond the Empire, into Prussia and Silesia . In the late 13th century, a Venetian explorer named Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel

15054-629: The Pope so as not to be confused with actual heretical movements such as the Waldensians . Catharism was a movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as heretical . It existed throughout much of Western Europe , but its origination was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern France. The name Cathar stems from Greek katharos , "pure". One of

15247-530: The adoption of Publius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian clan. Clodius was an independent agent who was adept at playing political enemies off of each other. Soon after Clodius' adoption was ratified, he, against Caesar's wishes, successfully stood for a tribunate for 58 BC. After some slights from Caesar and Pompey relating to assignment of a foreign mission, he broke with them. At the start of his tribunate, Clodius pushed forward four popular bills to expand grain imports, provide free grain to Roman citizens in

15440-418: The alliance's formation decisively after Caesar's consular election. Some historians believe Caesar, in his letter to Cicero, may have been coy ("it may also be that Caesar was not yet showing Cicero all of his cards" ) but it did show that Caesar "was not specifically looking at building a triumvirate, but rather was looking to build as strong a coalition as possible". This evidence – especially disclosure that

15633-491: The appropriate land resettlement legislation. Through massive bribes, Pompey also secured the election of more of his men to offices in 60 BC ( Lucius Afranius as consul; Lucius Flavius as one of the plebeian tribunes ), but they too were stymied. Cato the Younger and Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer , motivated in part by their dislike of Pompey's having previously and irregularly displaced their friend Lucullus from

15826-439: The assent of the senate. Little reasoned opposition emerged. In general, that an agrarian bill was desirable and "well justified... could not reasonably be denied... many senators must have felt that it was not high time to make good on the promise made long ago to the long-suffering veterans". Some ancient sources describe Caesar's conciliatory tone as a cynical plot to roll over the senators; Caesar's goal may have been to provide

16019-445: The attempt, he was assaulted by a mob, which threw him from the rostra and broke his fasces , symbolically rejecting Bibulus' consular authority. The law was then passed; the next day, Bibulus called a meeting of the senate seeking to annul the law on grounds that it was passed contrary to the auspices and with violence; annulment on such grounds was extremely rare and the senate, regardless, refused. Caesar "provocatively demanded from

16212-449: The beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural science contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste , Roger Bacon , Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus . Precursors of

16405-573: The bill for the foreseeable future". Without capable allies in the magistracies – both Piso and Afranius were ineffective – Pompey was forced to look elsewhere for allies. Crassus was one of the richest men in Rome, having made his fortune by profiting from the Sullan proscriptions . He was a patron for Rome's equestrian businessmen . With Pompey, he had served as consul in 70 BC. Those public contractors had massively over-bid on tax contracts for

16598-662: The bill passed, they also made good on their promise to Caesar, putting forward legislation extending Caesar's term in Gaul for five more years. Pompey threw lavish games in September as part of his dedication of the Theatre of Pompey . News also came of Caesar's expedition beyond the Rhine to Britain; for these, the senate voted him twenty days of thanksgiving. The opposing tribunes attempted to obstruct recruitment for Crassus and Pompey's armies, but were unsuccessful. When Crassus left

16791-536: The bodies in 1608, he noted that it was the "natural body" of the king that was created by God—the "politic body", by contrast, was "framed by the policy of man". In the Case of Prohibitions of the same year, Coke denied the king "in his own person" any right to administer justice or order arrests. Finally, in its declaration of 27 May 1642 shortly before the start of the English Civil War , Parliament drew on

16984-492: The body politic. For Baldus, not only was man, in Aristotelian terms, a "political animal", but the whole populus , the body of the people, formed a type of political animal in itself: a populus "has government as part of [its] existence, just as every animal is ruled by its own spirit and soul". Baldus equated the body politic with the respublica , the state or realm, stating that it "cannot die, and for this reason it

17177-420: The borderlands in the southern meseta . Agricultural models in areas with Mediterranean climate were generally based on biennial crop rotation . Despite population growth, agricultural output remained relatively rigid throughout the period; between the 10th and 13th centuries, migration southwards to exposed areas was incentivized by the possibility of enjoying privileges and acquiring properties. Conversely,

17370-577: The care and defence of the Crusader states . After the Holy Lands were eventually taken by Muslim forces, it moved its operations to Rhodes , and later Malta . The Teutonic Knights were a German religious order formed in 1190, in the city of Acre , to aid Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Lands and to operate hospitals for the sick and injured in Outremer . After Muslim forces captured

17563-780: The city in November, escorted by Pompey, they announced bad omens, attempted to arrest him, and cursed him at the city's gate. Part of the justification against Crassus' campaign was in terms of immorality: "several in Cato's circle argued... the Parthians had given no justification for war". The elections for the year, however, went strongly against the allies. Unwilling to repeat their mob tactics due to their unpopularity, Pompey campaigned for one of his clients, Titus Ampius Balbus, but those efforts were in vain. The voters returned Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus , denied victory by Pompey and Crassus' violence, and Appius Claudius Pulcher . Also elected

17756-570: The city, restore the collegia (professional organisations), regulate the use of auspices as obstructive tactics, and regulate the power of the censors to remove senators. He also moved agitating against Cicero 's illegal execution of the Catilinarian conspirators during his consulship in 63 BC. While Cicero had secured some promises of protection from Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, and the consuls for 58 BC, "the promised assistance... never materialised" because Clodius had quickly gained

17949-664: The concept at length in her Book of the Body Politic (1407). The idea of the body politic, rendered in legal terms through corporation theory, also drew natural comparison to the theological concept of the church as a corpus mysticum , the mystical body of Christ . The concept of the people as a corpus mysticum also featured in Baldus, and the idea that the realm of France was a corpus mysticum formed an important part of late medieval French jurisprudence. Jean de Terrevermeille  [ fr ] , around 1418–19, described

18142-498: The consuls of 57 and 56 BC were, if not opponents of, indifferent to both Caesar and Pompey; the failure to maintain their political influence put the alliance into a "shambles". Cicero, describing Pompey's plight, mentions the contio -goers estranged, the nobility hostile, and the senate unfair. Without the ability to make allies with the rest of the aristocracy, who had closed ranks against him, Pompey had to double down with his existing allies. Through this whole period, Caesar

18335-453: The consulship of 53 BC, he broke with Pompey and launched a prosecution against Scaurus. The alliance's opponents, led by Cato's coterie, also launched a broadside against their supporters in the courts: At least three more supporters of the triumvirate were prosecuted; they too were all acquitted. Cato and his coterie's judicial attacks were unsuccessful "in large part because the complex network of connections among senators meant that

18528-656: The continent. At the same time, settlers moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers beyond the Elbe River , which tripled the size of Germany in the process. The Catholic Church , which reached the peak of its political power around then, called armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks . The crusaders occupied the Holy Land and founded

18721-687: The crown "would purge the attainder ipso facto ". The king manifests "absolute immortality": "Henry, Edward, or George may die; but the king survives them all". Soon after the appearance of the Commentaries , however, Jeremy Bentham mounted an extensive attack on Blackstone which the historian Quentin Skinner describes as "almost lethal" to the theory: legal fictions like the body politic, Bentham argued, were conducive to royal absolutism and should be entirely avoided in law. Bentham's position dominated later British legal thinking, and though aspects of

18914-576: The dawn of the Age of Discovery . These inventions were influenced by foreign culture and society. Alfred W. Crosby described some of this technological revolution in The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 and other major historians of technology have also noted it. Art in the High Middle Ages includes these important movements: Gothic architecture superseded

19107-429: The deadline. Faced with political disaster, they decided instead of "scuttle the whole election process" for 56 BC. Election of Pompey and Crassus was by no means certain. By the time of the conference, to produce the conditions needed for victory, the alliance stoked mob violence and interposed a permanent tribunician veto – courtesy of Clodius' ally, Gaius Cato, who was tribune that year – to block elections until

19300-528: The decline of the Roman Republic as a literal process of decay, its seas and rivers becoming choked with blood and gore. The metaphor of the body politic remained in use after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The Neoplatonist Islamic philosopher al-Farabi , known in the West as Alpharabius, discussed the image in his work The Perfect State (c. 940), stating, "The excellent city resembles

19493-718: The defeat of Valdemar II in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging from Greenland to the Isle of Man , while Sweden, under Birger Jarl , built up a power-base in the Baltic Sea . However, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by the Treaty of Perth of 1266. Also, civil wars raged in Norway between 1130 and 1240. By

19686-616: The doctrine of the king's two bodies, the conventional image of the whole of the realm as a body politic had also remained in use in Stuart England: James I compared the office of the king to "the office of the head towards the body". Upon the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, however, parliamentarians such as William Bridge put forward the argument that the "ruling power" belonged originally to "the whole people or body politicke", who could revoke it from

19879-520: The dynasts. Cicero, dependent on and indebted to Pompey for his return from exile, was also enlisted to lend rhetorical support. The alliance was renewed and expanded to include the Claudii Pulchri, turning Clodius from an opponent to a supporter. In return for their help, the allies would support Appius – whose chances of election to a consulship without their support was slim – in his goal of being elected consul for 54. The remaining opposition

20072-458: The election of an uncooperative consular colleague. In both respects, they were successful: the consuls of 59 received commands that put them in a holding pattern and Cato secured election of his son-in-law and a personal enemy of Caesar's, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , as Caesar's co-consul. Caesar won his election handily, but to turn his provincial assignment into glory and defeat Bibulus' obstruction, he would need allies. Scholars have debated

20265-399: The electoral comitia also to secure the election of their allies to the praetorship (both Milo and Vatinius were returned) while excluding opponents (Cato was not). These strong-arm tactics were exceptional and resulted from the alliance's realisation that failure to secure the consulship in this year would result in their political extinction. While they certainly won a temporary victory,

20458-461: The exclusion of female heirs to the crown—since, they argued, the king of France was a "virile office". In the ancien régime , the king's heir was held to assimilate the body politic of the old king in a physical "transfer of corporeality" upon his accession. James I in the second charter for Virginia, as well as both the Plymouth and Massachusetts Charter , grant body politic. Aside from

20651-426: The fact that, in almost every case, former amici of Pompey are first seen to be ranged with the opposition in the year 59... by maintaining a consciously moral posture, driving the triumvirs to extreme measures, and parading their own martyrdom, Cato and his associates ruined triumviral credit among the people and assembled aristocratic collaboration in resistance". Early in 59 BC, Caesar and Pompey had ratified

20844-421: The first great and powerful state was formed, the Kingdom of Sicily with hereditary monarchy. Subsequently joined to the Holy Roman Empire, it had its moment of maximum splendor with the emperor Frederick II . In the rest of Italy, independent city states grew affluent on Eastern Mediterranean maritime trade. These were in particular the thalassocracies of Pisa , Amalfi , Genoa and Venice , which played

21037-448: The first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra Germania catharos appellat." ([In] our Germany [one] calls these [people] "Cathars".) The Cathars are also called Albigensians . This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation

21230-415: The following year. The terms of the consuls having expired, elections were conducted instead by temporary extraordinary magistrates, interreges , and with the arrival of Caesar's soldiers from Gaul on winter furlough, elections were held. Employing force to drive other candidates away and distributing bribes to ensure their victory, Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls. They then used their control over

21423-435: The glossators' 13th century successors, the commentators —especially Baldus de Ubaldis —to develop the idea of the corporation as a persona ficta , a fictive person, and apply the concept to human societies as a whole. Where his jurist predecessor Bartolus of Saxoferrato conceived the corporation in essentially legal terms, Baldus expressly connected the corporation theory to the ancient, biological and political concept of

21616-592: The gridlocked state of Roman politics in the years before 60 BC. All three had wanted something but were stymied by their rivals in the senate and assemblies. Pompey, having returned two years earlier from the Third Mithridatic War , wanted ratification of his peace settlements in the east. He also sought lands for his veterans to retire on. After Pompey's return from the Sertorian War from Hispania in 71 BC, he had been able secure

21809-555: The hostile Seljuk Turks . Relying on a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated vast lands spanning from present-day southern Russia on the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea . Georgia remained a leading regional power until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within two decades after Tamar's death. In the High Middle Ages, Hungary became one of

22002-479: The image of the body politic into a modern theory of the state as an artificial person. Parallel terms deriving from the Latin corpus politicum exist in other European languages. The term body politic derives from Medieval Latin corpus politicum , which itself developed from corpus mysticum , originally designating the Catholic Church as the mystical body of Christ but extended to politics from

22195-399: The image of the city dominated by one man's sole power, unchecked by a colleague". Pompey and Caesar attempted public protests against Bibulus' edicts and seclusion, respectively, to little response from the people. By then, the popular fervour of the agrarian bills had died down and the public likely desired a return to normal politics. The ancient sources claimed that for most of the year,

22388-419: The immortal "King body politic". Upon the "demise" of an individual king, his body natural fell away, but the body politic lived on. This was an indigenous development of English law without a precise equivalent in the rest of Europe. Extending the identification of the body politic as a corporation, English jurists argued that the Crown was a " corporation sole ": a corporation made up of one body politic that

22581-470: The judges held that it could not: the king's "Body politic, which is annexed to his Body natural, takes away the Imbecility of his Body natural". The king's body politic, then, "that cannot be seen or handled", annexes the body natural and "wipes away" all its defects. What was more, the body politic rendered the king immortal as an individual: as the judges in the case Hill v. Grange argued in 1556, once

22774-521: The king had made an act, "he as King never dies, but the King, in which Name it has Relation to him, does ever continue"—thus, they held, Henry VIII was still "alive", a decade after his physical death. The doctrine of the two bodies could serve to limit the powers of the real king. When Edward Coke , Chief Justice of the Common Pleas at the time, reported the way in which judges had differentiated

22967-496: The kingdom, which exists as a corpus mysticum governed by one man as head. In Tudor and Stuart England , the concept of the body politic was given a peculiar additional significance through the idea of the king's two bodies , the doctrine discussed by the German-American medievalist Ernst Kantorowicz in his eponymous work . This legal doctrine held that the monarch had two bodies: the physical "king body natural" and

23160-458: The land (reducing the chance of riots), distribute credit for the bill among twenty commissioners (of which Caesar was not to be one), purchase property for redistribution only from willing sellers based on censorial assessments, pay for the entire project from monies won by Pompey, and extend the land grants to Pompey's veterans in return for their service. Caesar had the bill read out line-by-line and promised to make any changes needed to receive

23353-570: The largest states in Europe. In the mid-10th century Poland emerged as a duchy after Mieszko I , the ruler of the Polans , conquered the surrounding Lechitic tribes in the region. Then in 1025 under the rule of Bolesław I the Brave , Poland became a kingdom. The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state of Kievan Rus' and emergence of Cumania . Later, the Mongol invasion in

23546-701: The level of the French and British epics, producing the Nibelungenlied . There was also a quantity of poetry and historical writings which were written during this period, such as Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth . First Triumvirate The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance among three prominent politicians in the late Roman Republic : Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus , Marcus Licinius Crassus , and Gaius Julius Caesar . The republican constitution had many veto points. In order to bypass constitutional obstacles and force through

23739-680: The litigants could not be reduced to stark choices between two political parties or ideologies". This year also saw the death of Caesar's daughter, and Pompey's wife, Julia, in childbirth. Caesar offered in marriage his grand-niece Octavia , but was rebuffed. Pompey's refusal, however, did not indicate a break between the two allies. At the time, there was "no demonstrable rupture"; Pompey and Caesar continued to support each other politically for several years. The elections for 53 BC were hugely delayed due to political violence and bribery. Domitius and Appius Claudius engaged in bribery pact with two consular candidates. Thus, an anti-triumviral consul,

23932-618: The liturgy, and fasting days. The Catholic Crusades occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries. They were conducted under papal authority, initially with the intent of reestablishing Christian rule in The Holy Land by taking the area from the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate . The Fatimids had captured Palestine in AD 970, lost it to the Seljuk Turks in 1073 and recaptured it in 1098, just before they lost it again in 1099 as

24125-405: The longer-term fallout of intimidation tactics and the validation of Cato's warnings proved especially harmful "among the basically conservative Roman voters". Pompey and Crassus moved first to elect censors and pass new legislation regulating juries and punishing bribery. The main piece of legislation was brought by an allied tribune, Gaius Trebonius , to grant for five years Crassus and Pompey

24318-441: The magistrates for 57 were friendly; in the elections of 57 (for magistrates in 56) his allies were repulsed from both the aedileship and the praetorship, while his political enemies won two praetorships. Caesar's political support in Rome was largely dependent on Pompey and Crassus, rather than his own legates or allies. By 56 BC, Caesar's enemies were mobilising against him: a tribune attempted to recall him for trial – which

24511-472: The modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus . During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than

24704-417: The monarch. The execution of Charles I in 1649 made necessary a radical revision of the whole concept. In 1651, Thomas Hobbes 's Leviathan made a decisive contribution to this effect, reviving the concept while endowing it with new features. Against the parliamentarians, Hobbes maintained that sovereignty was absolute and the head could certainly not be "of lesse power" than the body of the people; against

24897-482: The mortal body natural of the king, as in the English theory, the French doctrine conflated the two, arguing that the Salic law had established a single king body politic and natural that constantly regenerated through the biological reproduction of the royal line. The body politic, on this account, was biological and necessarily male, and 15th century French jurists such as Jean Juvénal des Ursins argued on this basis for

25090-474: The most famous sacral building of the time: Notre Dame de Paris . A variety of cultures influenced the literature of the High Middle Ages, one of the strongest among them being Christianity. The connection to Christianity was greatest in Latin literature , which influenced the vernacular languages in the literary cycle of the Matter of Rome . Other literary cycles, or interrelated groups of stories, included

25283-502: The most powerful medieval states in Europe. The Christian Kingdom of Hungary was established in 1000 under King Saint Stephen I of Hungary , and ruled by the Árpád dynasty for the following centuries. King Saint Ladislaus completed the work of King Saint Stephen . He consolidated the Hungarian state power and strengthened the influence of Christianity . His charismatic personality, strategic leadership and military talents resulted

25476-743: The most to lose. After alienating the Metelli by divorcing Mucia, Pompey's alliance with Caesar and Crassus alienated some former allies in the 60s as well, including the Cornelii Lentuli. The triple alliance also led to other formerly rivalrous families mending their relationships. The Luculli and Servilii, who had been rivals for decades, "combined to withstand the triumvirs". Similarly, the Scibonii Curiones, Cornelii Sullae, and Memmii switched from supporting Pompey into opposing him and Caesar. In general, "there can be no coincidence in

25669-399: The name universitas , and a formulation of the concept attributed to Ulpian was collected in the 6th century Digest of Justinian I during the early Byzantine era . The Digest , along with the other parts of Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis , became the bedrock of medieval civil law upon its recovery and annotation by the glossators beginning in the 11th century. It remained for

25862-662: The newly urbanized areas such as southern France and northern Italy and were probably influenced by the Bogomils and other dualist movements . These heresies were on a scale the Catholic Church had never seen before and as such the response was one of elimination for some (such as the Cathars ). Some Catholic monastic leaders, such as Francis of Assisi , the founder of the Franciscans , had to be recognized directly by

26055-449: The passage of a law granting to Caesar the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul for five years. Doing so replaced Caesar's assigned province of the woods and paths of Italy with Gaul; this was in response to growing tensions between the republic and the recent victors of a power struggle in Gaul, which had destabilised the geopolitical situation in the region. After the death of the governor of Transalpine Gaul – one of Cato's allies –

26248-465: The people would be too gracious to Caesar for bringing the bill and that the current situation was fine. The extent to which Caesar's prestige during his first consulship was a topic of debate is unclear; the later sources may here be injecting their knowledge of Caesar's later victories into the narrative. Caesar, seeking to break the filibuster, therefore threatened to have Cato sent to the carcer , Rome's small jail, which elicited mass indignation from

26441-405: The perfect and healthy body, all of whose limbs cooperate to make the life of the animal perfect". John of Salisbury gave it a definitive Latin high medieval form in his Policraticus around 1159: the king was the body's head; the priest was the soul; the councillors were the heart; the eyes, ears, and tongue were the magistrates of the law; one hand, the army, held a weapon; the other, without

26634-537: The period from the 10th century to about the 14th century in Europe, was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colder Little Ice Age which would continue until the Middle of the 19th century. Farmers grew wheat well north into Scandinavia, and wine grapes in northern England, although the maximum expansion of vineyards appeared to occur within the Little Ice Age period. During this time,

26827-411: The period to expand Scholasticism , a combination of Judeo-Islamic and Catholic ideologies with the ancient philosophy. For much of this period, Constantinople remained Europe's most populous city, and Byzantine art reached a peak in the 12th century . In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed around this period. The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages began at

27020-460: The phrase 'First Triumvirate' without adopting some version of the view that it was a kind of conspiracy against the republic... Nomenclature matters... I eschew the traditional 'First Triumvirate' altogether". Classicists writing for more general audience also have shied away from use of the term "First Triumvirate". Mary Beard , for example, uses "Gang of Three" in her 2015 book SPQR . Yet others, such as Adrian Goldsworthy , have not, staying with

27213-443: The political class; Cicero, who had been sullen during Caesar's consulship, sang his praises, saying "If perhaps Gaius Caesar was too contentious in any matter, if the greatness of the struggle, his zeal for glory, if his irrepressible spirit and high nobility drove him on [that] should be tolerated in the case of a man of his quality". This popularity, however, did not translate into political victories for his political allies: none of

27406-517: The political goals of the three men, they forged an alliance in secret where they promised to use their respective influence to support each other. The "triumvirate" was not a formal magistracy, nor did it achieve a lasting domination over state affairs. It was formed among the three men due to their mutual need to overcome opposition in the senate against their proposals in the previous years. Initially secret, it emerged publicly during Caesar's first consulship in 59 BC to push through legislation for

27599-576: The political situation, his "deadly enemy P. Clodius [had] his long-obstructed 'transition' to the plebs rushed through by Caesar... in good time to stand for the tribunate". Caesar then moved to lift the exemption of Campania from his agrarian bill some time in May; its passage may have proved the last straw for Bibulus, who then withdrew to his house. Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance. An ally of Caesar's, Publius Vatinius (then-plebeian tribune), also secured

27792-579: The province of Asia (parts of modern western Turkey ) because they failed to account for the devastation of the Third Mithridatic War . His clients demanded a reduction in the taxes they were contractually obliged to deliver to the treasury, a goal also stymied by Cato and Celer in December 61 BC. While senators such as Cicero personally believed "it was ridiculous for [the tax farmers] to seek to have their contracts renegotiated or cancelled simply because they had overestimated their potential profits",

27985-525: The provinces of Syria and Hispania (they would draw lots for the specific assignment). Crassus envisioned possible campaigns against Egypt or the Parthians; Pompey envisioned similar campaigns against the Spanish hinterlands. Fearing vetoes from two of his tribunician colleagues, Trebonius had one of them locked in the senate house and prevented the other from entering the Forum with an obstructive mob. With

28178-676: The requisite lex had been passed. When Memmius exposed the conspiracy, likely to implicate Domitius, all four were indicted for bribery. The senate delayed elections to hold an inquiry, but the specific steps forward became quickly contested and various tribunes vetoed the elections. Coupled with raging street battles in the city between Milo and Clodius' armed gangs, elections were finally held after more than seven months without any magistrates, in July 53 BC. Dio attributed these delays to tribunician vetoes against elections of interreges designed to incite appointment of Pompey as dictator. Pompey

28371-618: The returned Cicero's support, was able to secure a prestigious command over Rome's grain supply in September 57 BC. However, Pompey's very success renewed the coalition against him: a coalition of the Claudii, including Clodius, the Lentuli, and the Catonians – with little meaningful opposition from Caesar and Crassus – were able to shut off any hope of Pompey being granted a new military command in Egypt to restore Ptolemy XII Auletes to

28564-474: The rise of ethnocentrism , which evolved later into modern national identities in most of Europe, the ascent of the great Italian city-states and the rise and fall of the Islamic civilization of Al-Andalus . The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle , at first indirectly through medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophy , led Maimonides , Ibn Sina , Ibn Rushd , Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers of

28757-428: The royal absolutists, however, he developed the idea of a social contract , emphasising that the body politic—Leviathan, the "mortal god"—was fictional and artificial rather than natural, derived from an original decision by the people to constitute a sovereign. Hobbes's theory of the body politic exercised an important influence on subsequent political thinkers, who both repeated and modified it. Republican partisans of

28950-585: The rule of independent native princes until the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in 1282. The Exchequer was founded in the 12th century under King Henry I , and the first parliaments were convened. In 1215, after the loss of Normandy , King John signed the Magna Carta into law, limiting the power of English monarchs . A key geo-strategic development in the Iberian Peninsula was the Christian conquest of Toledo in 1085. Dominated by war,

29143-403: The senate an oath of obedience to the law and got it" after some pushing and resistance from Cato and some of his allies. Some time after passage of the agrarian bill, Bibulus withdrew from public business to his home to declare unfavourable omens on all future voting days; the specific time in the year he did so, however, is not known. Caesar moved two further bills, first, for ratification of

29336-399: The senate had been on the verge of approving the legislation before Celer's intervention. Crassus, a personal enemy of Pompey, also opposed Pompey's settlements and land bills in 60 BC, successfully mobilising his support among the lower-ranked senators to defeat Pompey's proposals. His opposition to Pompey may have been in attempt to win over the senators blocking his own goals, but this

29529-504: The senate rejected the claims. In later years, Caesar's laws were accepted writ large (perhaps with the exception of Bibulus), disregarding any technical religious objections: "If Cicero and Cato both went along with the laws of Vatinius and Caesar, we can fairly assume the rest of the senators did so as well... For Bibulus, it was something of a personal campaign to seek to undermine... Caesar's legislation... but his protests in 59 and later hardly 'kept [it] technically invalid'". Pompey had

29722-462: The senate was not called and that the people and senators were intimidated and cowed into passing whatever the three allies put before them. These claims are incompatible with the attested events of that year. For example, in that year, Caesar's ally Vatinius was defeated in an election to the augurate and later elections for the magistracies returned Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Memmius , both opponents of Pompey and Caesar, as praetors. He

29915-448: The senate was persuaded also to assign to Caesar that province as well. Both bills were met with little resistance, likely due to Cato and his allies' boycotting of public business. By the summer, however, popular opinion had started to turn against Caesar's methods. Pompey also was distancing himself from Caesar. This was in part due to the success to Cato and Bibulus' campaign: Bibulus' choice to confine himself to his home "presented

30108-407: The senators an opportunity to "adopt symbolic leadership and demonstrate its solicitude for the interests... of the people... [giving] the body a chance to co-opt the cause of agrarian legislation in its own favour". Whether a cynical ploy or not, the senate voiced little opposition until the speaking order eventually wound its way to Cato; Cato immediately started a filibuster, arguing instead that

30301-416: The senators. In doing so, Cato succeeded in provoking Caesar into giving credence to Cato's claims that Caesar was a would-be tyrant. Recognising the mistake, Caesar quickly had Cato released. After facing these hurdles in the senate, Caesar moved to bring the agrarian law before the people on his own authority, without senatorial consent. Moving to the forum, Caesar summoned a contio (a meeting wherein

30494-448: The societal structures and relations in the northern Christian kingdoms were subordinated to the demands of omnipresent military conflict. The territorial expansion of the northern Christian kingdoms to the south brought the creation of border societies, where military demands on knights and foot soldiers and the promotion of settlement were prioritized over potential seigneurial income; military orders also played an important role in

30687-434: The specific date at which the alliance was formed. Plutarch , Livy , and Appian placed the formation of the alliance before Caesar's election; Vellius , Suetonius and Cassius Dio instead put its formation after his election. During the elections to the consulship, Caesar certainly received support from both Pompey and Crassus, though "each for his own reasons... Crassus cultivated promising adherents[;] Pompey needed

30880-539: The start of the 14th century and marked the end of the period. In England, the Norman Conquest of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a Francophone nobility. The Normans invaded Ireland in 1169 and soon established themselves in most of the country, although their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise, Scotland and Wales were subdued into vassal states at about the same time, though Scotland later asserted its independence and Wales remained largely under

31073-461: The state"—appears as such for the first time in the late 4th century Athenian orators Dinarch and Hypereides at the beginning of the Hellenistic era . In these early formulations, the anatomical detail of the body politic was relatively limited: Greek thinkers typically confined themselves to distinguishing the ruler as head of the body, and comparing political stasis , that is, crises of

31266-518: The state, to biological disease. The image of the body politic occupied a central place in the political thought of the Roman Republic , and the Romans were the first to develop the anatomy of the "body" in full detail, endowing it with nerves, "blood, breath, limbs, and organs". In its origins, the concept was particularly connected to a politicised version of Aesop 's fable of " The Belly and

31459-402: The stomach's digestion had provided them vital energy. Convinced by this story, the plebeians returned to Rome, and the Roman body was made whole and functional. This legend formed a paradigm for "nearly all surviving republican discourse of the body politic". Late republican orators developed the image further, comparing attacks on Roman institutions to mutilations of the republic's body. During

31652-434: The subordinate stature of Pompey's other amici ", defeat the political opposition, and win a profitable command. It was well known prior to Caesar's assumption of the consulship with the new year that he would propose a lex agraria . With powerful and secret political allies, Caesar started his consulship of 59 BC relatively traditionally. After ordering that minutes of the senate's debates be published, he published

31845-401: The success of Cato and Bibulus' tactics at discrediting Caesar and Pompey made the two greatly unpopular during and after the summer: "[Caesar and Pompey's] public appearances were received coldly or with open antagonism... Bibulus, far from being a pitiable figure, had never enjoyed such wide repute". Cato and Bibulus, for their part, mobilised a large propaganda campaign seeking to brand Caesar

32038-547: The term was a modern coinage was unknown, "revealed" only in 1807. By the 19th century, usage was somewhat regular – mostly in English and French sources, though not in German ones, – usually prefaced with clarifications that the term did not refer to any official position. More recently, scholars have started to avoid the term in publications altogether. Harriet Flower in Roman Republics writes that "First Triumvirate"

32231-415: The termination of internal power struggles and foreign military threats. The Kingdom of Hungary expanded to the Adriatic coast and entered a personal union with Croatia in 1102, by establish other vassal states , Hungary became a small empire that extended its control over the Southeast Europe and the Carpathian region. The Hungarian royal Árpád dynasty gave the world the most saints and blessed from

32424-435: The theory of the body politic would survive in subsequent jurisprudence, the idea of the Crown as a corporation sole was widely critiqued. In the late 19th century, Frederic William Maitland revived the legal discourse of the king's two bodies, arguing that the concept of the Crown as corporation sole had originated from the amalgamation of medieval civil law with the law of church property. He proposed, in contrast, to view

32617-574: The theory to invoke the powers of the body politic of Charles I against his body natural, stating: What they [Parliament] do herein, hath the Stamp of Royal Authority, although His Majesty seduced by evil Counsel, do in His own Person, oppose, or interrupt the same. For the King's Supreme Power, and Royal Pleasure, is exercised and declared in this High Court of Law, and Council, after a more eminent and obligatory manner, than it can be by any personal Act or Resolution of His Own. The 18th century jurist William Blackstone , in Book I of his Commentaries on

32810-400: The threat of Domitius' consulship by asking Crassus to stand and veto any actions to take away his command. Pompey chose to stand for the consulship as well, possibly unilaterally, met with the support (if not entirely willing), of his allies. However, by the time this arrangement was decided, the current consul – Marcellinus – refused to accept their candidacy on grounds that they had passed

33003-441: The three allies. Caesar secured passage of an agrarian law which helped resettle Pompey's veterans, a law ratifying Pompey's settlements after the Third Mithridatic War , and legislation on provincial administration and tax collection. Caesar also was placed in a long-term governorship in Gaul. The early success of the alliance, however, triggered substantial political backlash. Political alliances at Rome reorganised to counterbalance

33196-530: The three men in the coming years. By 55 BC, the alliance was fraying. The three men, however, came together in mutual interest to renew their pact. By force and with political disruption aided by their allies, they delayed consular elections into 55 BC and intimidated the comitia into electing Pompey and Crassus again as consuls. Caesar's command in Gaul was then renewed for another five years; plum provincial commands placed Pompey in Spain and Crassus in Syria . Amid even stronger backlash at Rome against

33389-444: The throne. In a clash of mutually exclusive proposals raised by different factions in January 56 BC, all proposals were unacceptable to at least one party, leading to nothing being done about Egypt. At the same time, Pompey's grain command had not produced reduced prices, further reducing his popularity; under attack by Clodius, whom Pompey suspected Crassus was supporting, the conservatives around Bibulus and Curio watched. All

33582-404: The time of the High Middle Ages, the Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. France pushed to the west. The Angevin Empire controlled much of France in the 12th century and early 13th century until the French retook much of their previous territory. By the time of the High Middle Ages,

33775-518: The traditional nomenclature while explaining that the term is inaccurate. The fourth edition of the Oxford Classical Dictionary , for example, similarly says "the coalition formed between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus in 60 BCE was wholly unofficial and never described at the time as a triumvirate... 'First' and 'Second Triumvirate' are modern and misleading terms". The alliance between Pompey , Crassus , and Caesar emerged due to their failure to pass various core portions of their programmes in

33968-399: The use of biological analogies in conservative rhetoric. Arguing that it was better conceived as a machine operating by the "due action and re-action of the ... springs of the constitution" than a human body, he termed "the body politic" a "careless figurative expression": "It is not corporeal ... not formed from the dust of the earth. It is purely intellectual; and its life-spring

34161-497: The use of naked force and chaos to achieve political ends, Crassus died in 53 BC during his failed invasion of Parthia . Caesar and Pompey, the two remaining allies, maintained friendly relations for a few years. They remained allies even after Pompey's assumption of a sole consulship in 52 BC and the death of Julia (Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife). Pompey, however, moved to form alliances to counterbalance Caesar's influence after Crassus' death. These drew him slowly into

34354-541: The word. He rejected the practice of selling indulgences ( simony ), as well as the common saint cult practices of the day. Waldensians are considered a forerunner to the Protestant Reformation , and they melted into Protestantism with the outbreak of the Reformation and became a part of the wider Reformed tradition after the views of John Calvin and his theological successors in Geneva proved very similar to their own theological thought. Waldensian churches still exist, located on several continents. In Northern Europe,

34547-518: Was Cato for a praetorship; the next year, he would chair the court on extortion. The new consul Appius Claudius Pulcher seemed an ally, but as the political winds blew against the alliance, he quickly defected. Early in the year, he cooperated with them in securing the appointment of a Pompeian ally as one of Caesar's tribunes and obstructed Gabinius' prosecution (for the bribes received to induce his invasion of Egypt), but seeing Pompey's support for one Marcus Aemilius Scaurus rather than his brother for

34740-411: Was also able to secure election of two allies – one was Caesar's soon-to-be father-in-law ( Lucius Calpurnius Piso ) and the other was Pompey's supporter Aulus Gabinius – to the consulship. Also passed during Caesar's consulship was the lex Julia de repetundis , which was a wide-ranging reform on corruption in the provinces and before the republic's permanent courts. During the Caesar's consulship,

34933-471: Was also expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the greatness of God. The floor plan of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of scholasticism: According to Erwin Panofsky 's Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism , the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics are exhibited by

35126-412: Was also further reinvigorated. Cato had returned from a provincial assignment in Cyprus in late 56 and supported Domitius' campaign for the consulship. After 55 BC, when Pompey and Crassus assumed a joint consulship by violence, the political fortunates of the triple alliance quickly soured. The development of the specific terms of their renewed agreement may have taken some time. Caesar responded to

35319-477: Was at the same time the body of the realm and its parliamentary estates, and also the body of the royal dignity itself—two concepts of the body politic that were conflated and fused. The development of the doctrine of the king's two bodies can be traced in the Reports of Edmund Plowden . In the 1561 Case of the Duchy of Lancaster , which concerned whether an earlier gift of land made by Edward VI could be voided on account of his "nonage", that is, his immaturity,

35512-859: Was broken in 1410, at the Battle of Grunwald , where the Order suffered a devastating defeat against a joint Polish-Lithuanian army. After Grunwald, the Order declined in power until 1809 when it was officially dissolved. There were ten crusades in total. The new Christian method of learning was influenced by Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) from the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle , at first indirectly through Medieval Jewish and Muslim Philosophy ( Maimonides , Avicenna , and Averroes ) and then through Aristotle 's own works brought back from Byzantine and Muslim libraries; and those whom he influenced, most notably Albertus Magnus , Bonaventure and Abélard . Many scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposed Christian mysticism , and

35705-506: Was commonly thought that light was an expression of God; therefore, architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that reflected this teaching. Colorful glass windows enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and later fan vaultings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God

35898-414: Was dealing with a military crisis as the Gauls rose up. From the perspective at Rome, news of ambushes against in Gaul arrived first: Caesar abandoned his civil functions in Cisalpine Gaul to rescue his legions wintering in the Eburones ' territory (near modern Belgium). A few months later, news of the disaster at the Battle of Carrhae arrived, reporting that Crassus and much of his army had been killed by

36091-443: Was evidently unsuccessful. Passing renegotiation of these tax contracts was vital for Crassus: "his reputation and influence depended on his ability to act as a champion for the powerful equestrian order". Caesar in 60 BC was the recently returning governor of Hispania Ulterior . At this point, he was the least powerful of the three, although he had, in an upset, won election as pontifex maximus in 63 BC. Energetic and

36284-560: Was fighting in the Gallic Wars . By early 56 BC, he had won enormous popularity both with the senate and the people: in 57, Caesar requested thanksgivings for his victory over the Belgae and, at a motion of Cicero, received fifteen days of supplicationes , a new record. In his narrative of his campaign, Commentarii de Bello Gallico , by 57, Caesar reported pacification of the whole region. These military achievements had undercut any political will to undermine Caesar's acta from his first consulship, and during 56 itself, Caesar received

36477-502: Was not in the city; his return in the summer and his declining of a dictatorship, however, may have stabilised the city sufficiently – both by his presence and by his starting a rapprochement with Cato's conservative faction – to allow for elections. By July, the alliance's support for Scaurus, along with Gaius Memmius , had gone nowhere. The comitia instead returned candidates supported by a coalition of triumviral enemies: Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus . As

36670-400: Was said to have "solemnly married his realm". The English jurist John Fortescue also invoked the "mystical body" in his De Laudibus Legum Angliae (c. 1470): just as a physical body is "held together by the nerves", the mystical body of the realm is held together by the law, and Just as the physical body grows out of the embryo, regulated by one head, so does there issue from the people

36863-403: Was somewhat successful in checking Clodius' influence when he formed a coalition to overturn Cicero's banishment, but Clodius' attacks continued, tacitly supported by Crassus and one Gaius Porcius Cato (a relative of Cato the Younger). Pompey also responded by supporting Titus Annius Milo and Publius Sestius , who raised their own urban mobs to contest the streets from Clodius' mobs, and, with

37056-404: Was that intermediary. Crassus' motives are less clear. He must have wanted more than simply renegotiation of tax contracts. Crassus' additionally would be one of the administrators for the Pompeian land grants and, in doing so, "the preeminence which Crassus could not quite attain on his own [came] within his grasp". Caesar needed the alliance as well: he would fully become his own man, "escap[ing]

37249-444: Was vetoed, as he Caesar was legitimately on government business, – while Domitius only "declared his intention to terminate Caesar's command as soon as possible". Furthermore, Caesar's land bills were under attack by a tribune – perhaps under Pompey's influence – who wanted to deny Caesar's veterans from receiving land under his lex Julia agraria upon their retirement. And in the summer, fighting started back up, with campaigns against

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