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46-616: The sound change of 'g' into 'h' occurred in the Ukrainian , Belarusian , Czech and Slovak languages (hence Bohdan ). Although the sound change did not occur in Polish , either Bogdan or Bohdan may be used in Poland. Slavic variants include Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian Božidar (Божидар) and Polish Bożydar , and diminutive forms and nicknames include Boguś, Bodya, Boca, Boci, Boća, Boša, Bogi, Bo, Boga Boga, Boggie. The feminine form

92-506: A solution space . The heuristic is derived by using some function that is put into the system by the designer, or by adjusting the weight of branches based on how likely each branch is to lead to a goal node . Heuristics refers to the cognitive shortcuts that individuals use to simplify decision-making processes in economic situations. Behavioral economics is a field that integrates insights from psychology and economics to better understand how people make decisions. Anchoring and adjustment

138-406: A sound change is a change in the pronunciation of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by a different one (called phonetic change ) or a more general change to the speech sounds that exist ( phonological change ), such as the merger of two sounds or the creation of a new sound. A sound change can eliminate

184-466: A text that Polya dubs Heuristic . Pappus' heuristic problem-solving methods consist of analysis and synthesis . The study of heuristics in human decision-making was developed in the 1970s and the 1980s, by the psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman , although the concept had been originally introduced by the Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon . Simon's original primary object of research

230-592: A change operates unconditionally (in all environments), the context in which it applies must be specified: For example: Here is a second example: The symbol "#" stands for a word boundary (initial or final) and so the notation "/__#" means "word-finally", and "/#__" means "word-initially": That can be simplified to in which P stands for any plosive . In historical linguistics , a number of traditional terms designate types of phonetic change, either by nature or result. A number of such types are often (or usually) sporadic, that is, more or less accidents that happen to

276-466: A cognitive style "heuristic versus algorithmic thinking", which can be assessed by means of a validated questionnaire . The adaptive toolbox contains strategies for fabricating heuristic devices. The core mental capacities are recall (memory) , frequency , object permanence , and imitation . Gerd Gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested. They study

322-405: A larger experiential processing system that is often adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that require logical analysis. In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute substitution , which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgement (of a "target attribute") that

368-411: A mental shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a person (based on their actions), to classifying a plant as a tree based on it being tall, having a trunk, and that it has leaves (even though the person making the evaluation might never have seen that particular type of tree before). Stereotypes, as first described by journalist Walter Lippmann in his book Public Opinion (1922), are

414-455: A new one cannot affect only an original X. Sound change ignores grammar : A sound change can have only phonological constraints, like X > Z in unstressed syllables . For example, it cannot affect only adjectives . The only exception is that a sound change may recognise word boundaries, even when they are unindicated by prosodic clues. Also, sound changes may be regularized in inflectional paradigms (such as verbal inflection), when it

460-1609: A specific form. Others affect a whole phonological system. Sound changes that affect a whole phonological system are also classified according to how they affect the overall shape of the system; see phonological change . Heuristic Collective intelligence Collective action Self-organized criticality Herd mentality Phase transition Agent-based modelling Synchronization Ant colony optimization Particle swarm optimization Swarm behaviour Social network analysis Small-world networks Centrality Motifs Graph theory Scaling Robustness Systems biology Dynamic networks Evolutionary computation Genetic algorithms Genetic programming Artificial life Machine learning Evolutionary developmental biology Artificial intelligence Evolutionary robotics Reaction–diffusion systems Partial differential equations Dissipative structures Percolation Cellular automata Spatial ecology Self-replication Conversation theory Entropy Feedback Goal-oriented Homeostasis Information theory Operationalization Second-order cybernetics Self-reference System dynamics Systems science Systems thinking Sensemaking Variety Ordinary differential equations Phase space Attractors Population dynamics Chaos Multistability Bifurcation Rational choice theory Bounded rationality A heuristic or heuristic technique ( problem solving , mental shortcut , rule of thumb )

506-594: Is Bogdana or Bohdana , with variants such as Bogdanka . Names with similar meanings include Persian Khodadad , Greek Theodore , Arabic Ataullah , Hebrew Nathaniel , Jonathan , and Matthew , Latin Deodatus , French Dieudonné , and Sanskrit Devadatta . The surname Bogdan is one of the most common surnames in the Sisak-Moslavina County of Croatia . Notable people with the surname include: Sound change In historical linguistics ,

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552-491: Is a phonological change . The following statements are used as heuristics in formulating sound changes as understood within the Neogrammarian model. However, for modern linguistics, they are not taken as inviolable rules but are seen as guidelines. Sound change has no memory : Sound change does not discriminate between the sources of a sound. If a previous sound change causes X,Y > Y (features X and Y merge as Y),

598-405: Is also often used as a noun to describe a rule of thumb , procedure, or method. Philosophers of science have emphasised the importance of heuristics in creative thought and the construction of scientific theories. Seminal works include Karl Popper 's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and others by Imre Lakatos , Lindley Darden , and William C. Wimsatt . In legal theory , especially in

644-419: Is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized , perfected, or rationalized , but is nevertheless "good enough" as an approximation or attribute substitution . Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease

690-530: Is based on the key term: Justification (epistemology) . One-reason decisions are algorithms that are made of three rules: search rules, confirmation rules (stopping), and decision rules A class that's function is to determine and filter out superfluous things. Tracking heuristics is a class of heuristics. Social heuristics  – Decision-making processes in social environments George Polya studied and published on heuristics in 1945. Polya (1945) cites Pappus of Alexandria as having written

736-421: Is computationally complex, a more easily calculated "heuristic attribute" is substituted. In effect, a cognitively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without being aware of this happening. This theory explains cases where judgements fail to show regression toward the mean . Heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgments in health care. A heuristic

782-417: Is inevitable : All languages vary from place to place and time to time, and neither writing nor media prevents that change. A statement of the form is to be read as "Sound A changes into (or is replaced by, is reflected as, etc.) sound B". Therefore, A belongs to an older stage of the language in question, and B belongs to a more recent stage. The symbol ">" can be reversed, B < A, which also means that

828-477: Is no longer phonological but morphological in nature. Sound change is exceptionless : If a sound change can happen at a place, it will affect all sounds that meet the criteria for change. Apparent exceptions are possible because of analogy and other regularization processes, another sound change, or an unrecognized conditioning factor. That is the traditional view expressed by the Neogrammarians. In

874-403: Is one of the most extensively researched heuristics in behavioural economics. Anchoring is the tendency of people to make future judgements or conclusions based too heavily on the original information supplied to them. This initial knowledge functions as an anchor, and it can influence future judgements even if the anchor is entirely unrelated to the decisions at hand. Adjustment, on the other hand,

920-464: Is stored in the memory . Heuristics are inherently phenomenological, e.g., I and Thou . A heuristic device is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity Y . A good example is a model that, as it is never identical with what it models , is a heuristic device to enable understanding of what it models. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in this sense. A classic example

966-452: Is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across

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1012-576: Is the notion of utopia as described in Plato 's best-known work, The Republic . This means that the "ideal city" as depicted in The Republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for development. Rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another (often with highly problematic results), if one opted for certain principles and carried them through rigorously. Heuristic

1058-625: Is the process through which individuals make gradual changes to their initial judgements or conclusions. Anchoring and adjustment has been observed in a wide range of decision-making contexts, including financial decision-making, consumer behavior, and negotiation. Researchers have identified a number of strategies that can be used to mitigate the effects of anchoring and adjustment, including providing multiple anchors, encouraging individuals to generate alternative anchors, and providing cognitive prompts to encourage more deliberative decision-making. Other heuristics studied in behavioral economics include

1104-926: Is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. In mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification. Dual process theory concerns embodied heuristics . In psychology , heuristics are simple, efficient rules, either learned or inculcated by evolutionary processes. These psychological heuristics have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgements, and solve problems. These rules typically come into play when people face complex problems or incomplete information. Researchers employ various methods to test whether people use these rules. The rules have been shown to work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases can lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases . Lakatosian heuristics

1150-570: Is under uncertainty, heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort. This finding, known as a less-is-more effect , would not have been found without formal models. The valuable insight of this program is that heuristics are effective not despite their simplicity – but because of it. Furthermore, Gigerenzer and Wolfgang Gaissmaier found that both individuals and organisations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way. Heuristics, through greater refinement and research, have begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained by them. For example,

1196-405: The anchoring effect and utility maximization problem . These strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues. When an individual applies a heuristic in practice, it generally performs as expected. However it can alternatively create systematic errors. The most fundamental heuristic

1242-440: The cognitive load of making a decision . Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction , or on analogy   ... Induction is the process of discovering general laws   ... Induction tries to find regularity and coherence   ... Its most conspicuous instruments are generalization , specialization , analogy.   [...] Heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems [... that have been] preserved in

1288-442: The cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST) is also an adaptive view of heuristic processing. CEST breaks down two systems that process information. At some times, roughly speaking, individuals consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, deliberately, effortfully, and verbally. On other occasions, individuals consider issues intuitively, effortlessly, globally, and emotionally. From this perspective, heuristics are part of

1334-417: The comparative method . Each sound change is limited in space and time and so it functions in a limited area (within certain dialects ) and for a limited period of time. For those and other reasons, the term "sound law" has been criticized for implying a universality that is unrealistic for sound change. A sound change that affects the phonological system or the number or the distribution of its phonemes

1380-426: The recognition heuristic , the take-the-best heuristic and fast-and-frugal trees – have been shown to be effective in predictions, particularly in situations of uncertainty. It is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk. Risk refers to situations where all possible actions, their outcomes and probabilities are known. In the absence of this information, that

1426-472: The representativeness heuristic , which refers to the tendency of individuals to categorize objects or events based on how similar they are to typical examples, and the availability heuristic , which refers to the tendency of individuals to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind. Stereotyping is a type of heuristic that people use to form opinions or make judgements about things they have never seen or experienced. They work as

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1472-500: The wisdom of proverbs . Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier (2011) state that sub-sets of strategy include heuristics , regression analysis , and Bayesian inference . A heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more complex methods (Gigerenzer and Gaissmaier [2011], p. 454; see also Todd et al. [2012], p. 7). Heuristics are strategies based on rules to generate optimal decisions , like

1518-422: The (more recent) B derives from the (older) A": The two sides of such a statement indicate only the start and the end of the change, but additional intermediate stages may have occurred. The example above is actually a compressed account of a sequence of changes: * [t] first changed to [θ] (like the initial consonant of English thin ), which has since yielded [f] and can be represented more fully: Unless

1564-520: The United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary delineation is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual

1610-405: The United States, the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the patent application was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. A 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what

1656-413: The affected sound, or a new sound can be added. Sound changes can be environmentally conditioned if the change occurs in only some sound environments , and not others. The term "sound change" refers to diachronic changes, which occur in a language's sound system. On the other hand, " alternation " refers to changes that happen synchronically (within the language of an individual speaker, depending on

1702-446: The fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions, and the ecological rationality of these heuristics; that is, the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful. The descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox" is done by observation and experiment, while the prescriptive study of ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation. Heuristics – such as

1748-399: The laws of physics, and the term "law" is still used in referring to specific sound rules that are named after their authors like Grimm's law , Grassmann's law , etc. Real-world sound laws often admit exceptions, but the expectation of their regularity or absence of exceptions is of great heuristic value by allowing historical linguists to define the notion of regular correspondence by

1794-455: The meaning of the words that are affected. Apparent exceptions to regular change can occur because of dialect borrowing, grammatical analogy, or other causes known and unknown, and some changes are described as "sporadic" and so they affect only one or a few particular words, without any apparent regularity. The Neogrammarian linguists of the 19th century introduced the term sound law to refer to rules of regular change, perhaps in imitation of

1840-515: The neighbouring sounds) and do not change the language's underlying system (for example, the -s in the English plural can be pronounced differently depending on the preceding sound, as in bet [s], bed [z], which is a form of alternation, rather than sound change). Since "sound change" can refer to the historical introduction of an alternation (such as postvocalic /k/ in the Tuscan dialect , which

1886-447: The number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time. The bias–variance tradeoff gives insight into describing the less-is-more strategy. A heuristic can be used in artificial intelligence systems while searching

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1932-660: The past decades, however, it has been shown that sound change does not necessarily affect all possible words. However, when a sound change is initiated, it often eventually expands to the whole lexicon . For example, the Spanish fronting of the Vulgar Latin [g] ( voiced velar stop ) before [i e ɛ] seems to have reached every possible word. By contrast, the voicing of word-initial Latin [k] to [g] occurred in colaphus > golpe and cattus > gato but not in canna > caña . See also lexical diffusion . Sound change

1978-399: The population. The same reasoning applies to patent law . Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inventors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. In

2024-438: The theory of law and economics , heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body. The present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. For instance, in all states in

2070-516: Was once [k] as in di [k] arlo 'of Carlo' but is now [h] di [h] arlo and alternates with [k] in other positions: con [k] arlo 'with Carlo'), that label is inherently imprecise and must often be clarified as referring to either phonemic change or restructuring. Research on sound change is usually conducted under the working assumption that it is regular , which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors like

2116-475: Was problem solving that showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality . He coined the term satisficing , which denotes a situation in which people seek solutions, or accept choices or judgements, that are "good enough" for their purposes although they could be optimised. Rudolf Groner analysed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient Greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence , proposing

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