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68-615: For political reasons, the Bohemian and German sides have different names in their languages: in Czech , the Bohemian side is called Šumava and the Bavarian side Zadní Bavorský les 'Rear Bavarian Forest', while in German , the Bohemian side is called Böhmerwald 'Bohemian Forest', and the Bavarian side Bayerischer Wald 'Bavarian Forest'. In Czech, Šumava is also used as

136-547: A border region, the Bohemian Forest has had a complicated history. In the 20th century it was part of the Iron Curtain , and large areas were stripped of human settlement. Even before that, settlement was sparse and for centuries forests dominated over human dwellings and pathways. These unique circumstances led to the preservation of unspoilt nature and forest ecosystems relatively unaffected by human activity. On

204-635: A distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak. With the beginning of the national revival of the mid-18th century, Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the 15th through 17th centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (the Habsburg re-catholization efforts which had denigrated Czech and other non- Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts and advocated

272-506: A dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota . As of 2009, 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, after Turkish and before Swedish ). Standard Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes , and three diphthongs. The vowels are /a/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/ , and their long counterparts /aː/, /ɛː/, /iː/, /oː/ and /uː/ . The diphthongs are /ou̯/, /au̯/ and /ɛu̯/ ;

340-399: A locator by insects that are attracted by it, such as flies, which may intend to harm the bark beetle itself. These chemicals interact with pine trees as the bark beetle's host, based on the behavioral, physiological, and biochemical effects of monoterpenes. Monoterpenes are a chemical fragrance that plays a significant role in tree-insect interactions, specifically within pine trees. It

408-571: A more-restricted distinction between "hard" and "soft" consonants (see Phonology below). The term "Old Czech" is applied to the period predating the 16th century, with the earliest records of the high medieval period also classified as "early Old Czech", but the term "Medieval Czech" is also used. The function of the written language was initially performed by Old Slavonic written in Glagolitic , later by Latin written in Latin script . Around

476-580: A name for the entire region in Bohemia and Germany. The designation Šumava has been attested in the late 15th century in Antonio Bonfini 's work Rerum unganicarum decades . Folk etymology connects the name's origin with the Czech words šum , šumění (literally 'hum, humming') denoting the noise of trees in the wind. The most accepted opinion among linguists derives Šumava from

544-428: A number of insecticidal and fungicidal compounds that can kill, injure, or immobilize attacking insects. Sap is one of the first lines of defense of pines against bark beetles. Released sap or resins can plug bored holes of bark beetles and seal wounds. Resins also trap insect pests making some initial entry by bark beetles unsuccessful. Chemical compounds can also be induced by tree species that bind with amino acids in

612-514: A realistic chance of returning as a major language. However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival. Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, í in place of the former j and j in place of g ), the use of t (rather than ti ) to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether

680-489: A slow rise from low to high, quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase. In modern Czech syntax, adjectives precede nouns, with few exceptions. Relative clauses are introduced by relativizers such as the adjective který , analogous to the English relative pronouns "which", "that" and "who"/"whom". As with other adjectives, it agrees with its associated noun in gender, number and case. Relative clauses follow

748-416: A theorized Proto-Slavic word * šuma 'dense forest', cf. Serbian šuma as it adjoins regions populated by Sorbs of Lusatia and surrounds (North Eastern Bavaria and Saxony). There are corresponding toponyms in modern-day Serbia i.e. Šumadija 'land of dense forests'. Modern Serbian maintains the use of the word šuma 'forest' and the toponym Šumava equates to 'forested lands'. In

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816-576: A tree and lay their eggs in the phloem of the tree. This usually occurs in mid to late summer. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae then live in the tree, feeding on the living tissues below the bark, often leading to death of the tree if enough larvae are present. At the end of the larval stage, chambers are usually constructed for the pupae to overwinter until they are ready to emerge as an adult. Bark beetles are distinct in their morphology due to their small size and cylindrical shape. Bark beetles also have small appendages, with antennae that can be folded into

884-474: A verb; information about its subject is encoded in the verb. Enclitics (primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns) appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence, after the first stressed unit. The first slot can contain a subject or object, a main form of a verb, an adverb, or a conjunction (except for the light conjunctions a , "and", i , "and even" or ale , "but"). Czech syntax has a subject–verb–object sentence structure. In practice, however, word order

952-753: Is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group , written in Latin script . Spoken by over 12 million people including second language speakers, it serves as the official language of the Czech Republic . Czech is closely related to Slovak , to the point of high mutual intelligibility , as well as to Polish to a lesser degree. Czech is a fusional language with a rich system of morphology and relatively flexible word order . Its vocabulary has been extensively influenced by Latin and German . The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in

1020-636: Is a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. This branch includes Polish , Kashubian , Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak . Slovak is the most closely related language to Czech, followed by Polish and Silesian . The West Slavic languages are spoken in Central Europe. Czech is distinguished from other West Slavic languages by

1088-634: Is a recognized minority language in Slovakia, Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language in the same way that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic also do. Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in

1156-422: Is also relevant to the declension patterns of nouns, which vary according to whether the final consonant of the noun stem is hard or soft. Voiced consonants with unvoiced counterparts are unvoiced at the end of a word before a pause, and in consonant clusters voicing assimilation occurs, which matches voicing to the following consonant. The unvoiced counterpart of /ɦ/ is /x/. The phoneme represented by

1224-494: Is an aggregation pheromone that attracts insects to the plant/ tree host, including the bark beetle. Monoterpenes has also been known to prevent fungal growth and are also toxic to bark beetles at high vapor concentrations. This latter process demonstrates a defense of pines using monoterpenes against the bark beetle. There are around 6,000 described species of bark beetles in 246 genera, placed into 26 distinct tribes . Bark beetles are most commonly recognized by their impact on

1292-432: Is flexible and used to distinguish topic and focus , with the topic or theme (known referents) preceding the focus or rheme (new information) in a sentence; Czech has therefore been described as a topic-prominent language . Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction (like English), in colloquial style, word-order changes frequently replace the passive voice. For example, to change "Peter killed Paul" to "Paul

1360-405: Is not always successful in its task, and many believe the rapid growth of tourist accommodation and services is destroying the former calm of the Šumava region. Šumava National Park is also suffering from problems connected with bark beetles , and there is heated debate about how to deal with them. According to archaeological findings, the Bohemian Forest area was not significantly populated during

1428-629: Is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia. Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages . The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent). Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities. Since it

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1496-575: Is realized as its voiceless allophone [r̝̊], a sound somewhere between Czech r and š . The consonants /r/, /l/, and /m/ can be syllabic , acting as syllable nuclei in place of a vowel. Strč prst skrz krk ("Stick [your] finger through [your] throat") is a well-known Czech tongue twister using syllabic consonants but no vowels. Each word has primary stress on its first syllable , except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables). In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress. Stress

1564-539: Is the common name for the subfamily of beetles Scolytinae . Previously, this was considered a distinct family ( Scolytidae ), but is now understood to be a specialized clade of the "true weevil " family ( Curculionidae ). Although the term "bark beetle" refers to the fact that many species feed in the inner bark (phloem) layer of trees, the subfamily also has many species with other lifestyles, including some that bore into wood, feed in fruit and seeds, or tunnel into herbaceous plants. Well-known species are members of

1632-406: Is the spruce ips Ips typographus . A tiny bark beetle, the coffee berry borer , Hypothenemus hampei is a major pest on coffee plantations around the world. Bark beetles go through four stages of life: egg, larvae, pupae, and adult, with the time to develop often relying on the species as well as the current temperature. While there is variation among species, generally adults first bore into

1700-499: Is unrelated to vowel length; both long and short vowels can be stressed or unstressed. Vowels are never reduced in tone (e.g. to schwa sounds) when unstressed. When a noun is preceded by a monosyllabic preposition, the stress usually moves to the preposition, e.g. do Prahy "to Prague". Czech grammar, like that of other Slavic languages, is fusional ; its nouns, verbs, and adjectives are inflected by phonological processes to modify their meanings and grammatical functions, and

1768-625: The Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 (the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages) became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries as it was used as a model for the standard language. In 1615, the Bohemian diet tried to declare Czech to be the only official language of the kingdom. After the Bohemian Revolt (of predominantly Protestant aristocracy) which

1836-622: The Leskovec-Dresden Bible , also dates to this period. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were also produced outside universities. Literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation . Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography , advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after

1904-702: The dividing range between the watersheds of the Black Sea and the North Sea , where water collected by the Vltava , Otava and Úhlava rivers flows. These rivers all spring from the Bohemian Forest. Owing to heavy precipitation (mostly snow), the peat bogs and the Lipno Reservoir , the Šumava region is an important water reservoir for Central Europe . More important for their aesthetic value than for holding water are several lakes of glacial origin . As

1972-476: The extant mostly Neotropical genus Microborus is also known from the Cenomanian aged Burmese amber of Myanmar. Bark beetles are preyed upon by birds such as woodpeckers , other beetles such as the black-bellied clerid ( Enoclerus lecontei ) and certain other members of family Cleridae , flies such as the long-legged flies (Dolichopodidae), and certain phoretic mites. Phoretic mites use

2040-742: The high medieval period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the modern written standard became codified in the context of the Czech National Revival . The most widely spoken non-standard variety , known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague , but is now spoken as an interdialect throughout most of Bohemia . The Moravian dialects spoken in Moravia and Czech Silesia are considerably more varied than

2108-411: The mountain pine beetle ( Dendroctonus ponderosae ), do attack living trees, many bark beetle species feed on weakened, dying, or dead spruce, fir, and hemlock. Most restrict their breeding area to one part of the tree: twig, branch, stem, or root collar. Some breed in trees of only one species, while others in numerous species of tree. In undisturbed forests, bark beetles serve the purpose of hastening

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2176-649: The type genus Scolytus , namely the European elm bark beetle S. multistriatus and the large elm bark beetle S. scolytus , which like the American elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes , transmit Dutch elm disease fungi ( Ophiostoma ). The mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae , southern pine beetle Dendroctonus frontalis , and their near relatives are major pests of conifer forests in North America. A similarly aggressive species in Europe

2244-406: The voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable. The Bohemian (Czech) language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the late 13th and early 14th century and administrative documents first appear towards the late 14th century. The first complete Bible translation ,

2312-528: The 7th century, the Slavic expansion reached Central Europe, settling on the eastern fringes of the Frankish Empire . The West Slavic polity of Great Moravia formed by the 9th century. The Christianization of Bohemia took place during the 9th and 10th centuries. The diversification of the Czech-Slovak group within West Slavic began around that time, marked among other things by its use of

2380-453: The Bohemian borderland began. In the area, 136 villages with German names relating to forest clearing ( Rodungsnamen ) existed. In addition, groups of German village names appear, one such group between Sonnberg (first mentioned in 1279) and Deutsch Reichenau (1261), another group around Zettwing (1356). South of Ottau , German villages form a line along the road from Linz through Hohenfurth to Krummau . Another old settlement area

2448-635: The Celtic agricultural settlements desolated. With the departure of the Marcomanni, the forests were left to evolve with almost no human influence. The Bohemian Forest forests began to change character only with the arrival of the Slavs in the 6th century, who found a refuge in the middle of the impenetrable forests. The cultural landscape began to penetrate the wooded surroundings. The gradual but disorganized and fairly subtle form of colonisation continued until

2516-705: The Paleolithic era – the Stone Age (dates back to 9000 BC). The initial settlements of a more permanent character appeared in the southwest of Bohemia during the Bronze Age (3,000 to 1,000 years BC). In the 1st century AD, the forest was inhabited by Gallo-Romans as well as by Germanic tribes in its northern part. The Celts were however gradually forced out by the Germanic tribe (the Marcomanni ), who left

2584-413: The ancient maps of astronomer and geographer Ptolemy , the mountain chain is called Gabreta . In the maps of Greek geographer Strabo the mountain chain is called Sudeta . Both names given to the mountain chain are of Celtic etymology. The Bohemian Forest comprises heavily forested mountains with average heights of 800–1,400 metres. The highest peak is Großer Arber (1,456 m) on the Bavarian side;

2652-582: The bark beetle to move from one location to the next, but some of these mite species also prey on the eggs or larvae of the bark beetles or act as parasites. The braconid wasp Spathius canadensis is known to parasitize the native elm bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes . Some bark beetles form a symbiotic relationship with certain Ophiostomatales fungi , and are named " ambrosia beetles ". The ambrosia beetles (such as Xyleborus ) feed on fungal "gardens" cultivated on woody tissue within

2720-455: The body and large mandibles to aid in the excavation of woody tissue. The legs of most bark beetles are very short and can be retracted or folded into the body. The combination of their shape and appendages greatly helps in the excavation of woody tissue. The eyes are also flattened and hypothesized to help see in low-light conditions. Bark beetles feed and breed between the bark and the wood of various tree species. While some species, such as

2788-434: The conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use. Adherence to historical patterns was later relaxed and standard Czech adopted a number of features from Common Czech (a widespread informal interdialectal variety), such as leaving some proper nouns undeclined. This has resulted in a relatively high level of homogeneity among all varieties of

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2856-427: The dialects of Bohemia. Czech has a moderately-sized phoneme inventory, comprising ten monophthongs , three diphthongs and 25 consonants (divided into "hard", "neutral" and "soft" categories). Words may contain complicated consonant clusters or lack vowels altogether. Czech has a raised alveolar trill , which is known to occur as a phoneme in only a few other languages, represented by the grapheme ř . Czech

2924-405: The easily separable affixes characteristic of agglutinative languages are limited. Czech inflects for case, gender and number in nouns and tense, aspect, mood , person and subject number and gender in verbs. Parts of speech include adjectives, adverbs , numbers, interrogative words , prepositions , conjunctions and interjections . Adverbs are primarily formed from adjectives by taking

2992-488: The fact that these rising temperatures provide the optimal conditions for larval growth, the development time that the larvae need to become an adult also drops, from 8–9 weeks to 6–7 weeks. As a third the result of global warming, the breeding season of the bark beetle is extended, meaning that number of generations per year will increase. All these factors contribute to an increasing amount of bark beetles and will thus likely result in an increasing frequency of infestations. In

3060-477: The final ý or í of the base form and replacing it with e , ě , y , or o . Negative statements are formed by adding the affix ne- to the main verb of a clause, with one exception: je (he, she or it is) becomes není . Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence (instead of relying on word order , as English does), its word order is flexible. As a pro-drop language , in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only

3128-475: The gut of bark beetles, reducing their ability to process woody materials. When in large quantities, the sheer number of beetles can overwhelm the tree's defenses with resulting impacts on the lumber industry , water quality, fish and wildlife, and property values. The oldest known member of the group is Cylindrobrotus from the Early Cretaceous ( Barremian ) aged Lebanese amber . A species of

3196-518: The highest peak on the Bohemian and Austrian side is the Plöckenstein (Plechý, 1,378 m). The most eastern peak is the Sternstein (1,125 m). The range is one of the oldest in Europe, and its mountains are eroded into round forms with few rocky parts. Typical for the Bohemian Forest are plateaux at about 1,000–1,200 m with relatively harsh climates and many peat bogs . The Bohemian Forest is

3264-494: The language. Czech is spoken by about 10 million residents of the Czech Republic . A Eurobarometer survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the first language of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech, the third-highest proportion of a population in the European Union (behind Greece and Hungary ). As the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the European Union since 2004), Czech

3332-844: The last two are found only in loanwords such as auto "car" and euro "euro". In Czech orthography, the vowels are spelled as follows: The letter ⟨ ě ⟩ indicates that the previous consonant is palatalized (e.g. něco /ɲɛt͡so/ ). After a labial it represents /jɛ/ (e.g. běs /bjɛs/ ); but ⟨mě⟩ is pronounced /mɲɛ/, cf. měkký ( /mɲɛkiː/ ). The consonant phonemes of Czech and their equivalent letters in Czech orthography are as follows: Czech consonants are categorized as "hard", "neutral", or "soft": Hard consonants may not be followed by i or í in writing, or soft ones by y or ý (except in loanwords such as kilogram ). Neutral consonants may take either character. Hard consonants are sometimes known as "strong", and soft ones as "weak". This distinction

3400-623: The late 11th century. Slavic settlement gradually shifted south, without however reaching the upper Vltava valley. Slavic-founded settlements carried the names of Christian Saints, which indicates that the founding was after the Christianization of Bohemia . Some toponyms indicate that the new Slavic settlers came in contact with remaining Germanic people. Under the rule of King Ottokar I , organized colonization of Bohemian Forest by German settlers began. Bavarian settlers after various wars with Serbs (modern Serbs/Sorbs) for domination over

3468-504: The letter ř (capital Ř ) is very rare among languages and often claimed to be unique to Czech, though it also occurs in some dialects of Kashubian , and formerly occurred in Polish. It represents the raised alveolar non-sonorant trill ( IPA : [r̝] ), a sound somewhere between Czech r and ž (example: "řeka" (river) ), and is present in Dvořák . In unvoiced environments, /r̝/

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3536-411: The lumber industry. Massive outbreaks of mountain pine beetles in western North America after about 2005 have killed millions of acres of forest from New Mexico to British Columbia . Bark beetles enter trees by boring holes in the bark of the tree, sometimes using the lenticels , or the pores plants use for gas exchange, to pass through the bark of the tree. As the larvae consume the inner tissues of

3604-579: The noun they modify. The following is a glossed example: Chc-i want- 1SG navštív-it visit- INF universit-u, university- SG . ACC , na on kter-ou which- SG . F . ACC chod-í attend- 3SG Bark beetle Cortylini Cryphalini Crypturgini Dryocoetini Hylastini Hylesinini Hylurgini Hypoborini Ipini Phloeosinini Phloeotribini Polygraphini Scolytini Scolytoplatypodini Taphrorychini Thamnurgini Tomicini Xyleborini Xyloterini A bark beetle

3672-796: The other hand, many habitats dependent on farming activity are slowly turning into forest. In the Czech Republic , the most valuable area is protected in the Šumava National Park and Protected Landscape and the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve . Part of the German section is protected as the Bavarian Forest National Park . The Bohemian Forest is a popular holiday destination because it is excellent hiking country. Most interesting natural and cultural sights are connected with more than 500 km of summer marked trails and many bike trails. However, park administration

3740-425: The past, fire has been suggested as potential mechanism for controlling bark beetle populations; however, most studies of wildfire after beetle outbreaks have found no effect of beetle-caused tree mortality on wildfire size or severity. Bark beetles can also be transporters of different plant pathogens such as cankers. The transport of the pathogens also result in the increase of fungi, mites and nematodes within

3808-440: The recycling and decomposition of dead and dying wood and renewing the forest. However, a few species are aggressive and can develop large populations that invade and kill healthy trees and are therefore known as pests . Bark beetles often attack trees that are already weakened by disease , overcrowding, conspecific beetles, or physical damage. In defense, healthier trees may produce sap, resin or latex , which often contains

3876-417: The region, cleared the forest and founded settlements in the to date largely uninhabited mountainous region, which thereby became culturally close to Bavaria . Since then the nature in Bohemian Forest, including the forested landscape developed under the strong influence of human activity. The borderline virgin forests receded, making way for fields and pastures, and thus in the 13th century, the colonisation of

3944-450: The reliance on the fungi for food and the fungi's ability to overcome some of the plant's chemical defenses. While the majority of ambrosia beetles infect dead trees, several species will infect trees considered healthy or under stress. The bark beetle's pheromones , including kairomones , can attract other insects. The pheromones distinguished as kairomones are hormones, pheromones, or allomones of bark beetles, which in turn are used as

4012-582: The return of the language to high culture . This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renaissance). During the national revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache ('Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language'). Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive , and did not think Czech had

4080-441: The spoken language. There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century. In the 16th century, the division between Czech and Slovak becomes apparent, marking the confessional division between Lutheran Protestants in Slovakia using Czech orthography and Catholics, especially Slovak Jesuits, beginning to use a separate Slovak orthography based on Western Slovak dialects. The publication of

4148-465: The states of Texas , Nebraska and Wisconsin . In the 2000 United States Census , Czech was reported as the most common language spoken at home (besides English ) in Valley , Butler and Saunders Counties , Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas . With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most common home language in more than

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4216-478: The tree, they often consume enough of the phloem to girdle the tree, cutting off the spread of water and nutrients. Ambrosia beetles are also known to aid in the spread of pathogens, such as diseases that can cause cankers , further damaging the trees they infect. Like many other insects, Scolytinae emit pheromones to attract conspecifics , which are thus drawn to trees already colonized by bark beetles. This can result in heavy infestations and eventually death of

4284-640: The tree. Many are also attracted to ethanol produced as a byproduct of microbial growth in the dead woody tissues. Increases in international trade, as well as the use of wood containers for storage, has aided numerous species of bark beetle in spreading across the world. They are also extremely adaptable and able to quickly spread through new environments, as seen in France with eleven different species. Bark beetle infestations are also predicted to increase with global warming , meaning infestations will most likely increase in frequency as temperatures rise. Besides

4352-427: The tree. Ambrosia beetles carry the fungal spores in either their gut or special structures, called mycangia , and infect the trees as they attack them. Once a beetle chooses a tree, they release spores of this fungus along tunnels within the tree. These spores grow and eventually produce fruiting structures to be consumed by the beetles. This can allow for ambrosia beetles to indirectly feed from more tree species due to

4420-424: The upper classes. Modern standard Czech originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period contain no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. At some point before the 18th century, the Czech language abandoned

4488-579: Was between Untermoldau (1376, today: Dolní Vltavice) and Obermoldau (1359). In 1945–1946, the region's Bohemian Germans were expelled . The originally Sorbian population moved to adjoining places which to this day testify to their origins in places throughout North Bohemia i.e Srbská Kamenice. Czech language Czech ( / tʃ ɛ k / CHEK ; endonym : čeština [ˈtʃɛʃcɪna] ), historically also known as Bohemian ( / b oʊ ˈ h iː m i ə n , b ə -/ boh- HEE -mee-ən, bə- ; Latin : lingua Bohemica ),

4556-631: Was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620, the Protestant intellectuals had to leave the country. This emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years' War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, especially among

4624-529: Was killed by Peter" the order of subject and object is inverted: Petr zabil Pavla ("Peter killed Paul") becomes "Paul, Peter killed" ( Pavla zabil Petr ). Pavla is in the accusative case , the grammatical object of the verb. A word at the end of a clause is typically emphasized, unless an upward intonation indicates that the sentence is a question: In parts of Bohemia (including Prague ), questions such as Jí pes bagetu? without an interrogative word (such as co , "what" or kdo , "who") are intoned in

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