Protestors
142-400: [REDACTED] Government of Bolivia Petroleum industry Evo Morales Álvaro García Linera Oscar Olivera Felipe Quispe Samuel Doria Medina Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada Carlos Mesa Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé Jorge Quiroga Gonzalo Arredondo Milán The Bolivian gas conflict was a social confrontation in Bolivia reaching its peak in 2003, centering on
284-588: A neoliberal structuring. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca -growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from government reforms. During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia,
426-466: A new constitution changed the country's official name to "Plurinational State of Bolivia" to reflect the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the strengthened rights of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution. The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived; however, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of
568-420: A "bourgeois ideology" of the "free market, foreign investment, racism, etc.", which pits the "modern", "whiter" Santa Cruz elite against the short, dark-skinned and anti-capitalist Aymara and Quechua peoples of the western region of Bolivia. The dispute arose in early 2002, when the administration of President Jorge Quiroga proposed building the pipeline through neighboring Chile to the port of Mejillones ,
710-520: A "council of indigenous peoples" along with a curtailment of private ownership, while Santa Cruz looks to western culture and capitalism . Cultural divisions exist because people in eastern Bolivia, called "Cambas" (meaning "friends" in Guarani ), are primarily of mestizo descent (mix of European and several native tribes the largest of which are the Guaraní), while the western Altiplano is dominated by
852-418: A Morales ally, did in the world's fifth-largest oil exporter with forced contract migrations and retroactive tax hikes — conditions that oil majors largely agreed to accept." YPFB would pay foreign companies for their services, offering about 50 percent of the value of production, although the decree indicated that companies at the country's two largest gas fields would get just 18 percent. Negotiations between
994-709: A base housing 20,000 US soldiers was being built at Mariscal Estigarribia within 200 km of Argentina and Bolivia, and 300 km of Brazil, near an airport which could receive large planes ( B-52 , C-130 Hercules , etc.) which the Paraguayan Air Forces do not have. According to the Clarín , an Argentinian newspaper, the US military base is strategic because of its location near the Triple Frontera between Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina; its proximity to
1136-614: A caravan of oil trucks escorted by police and soldiers deploying tanks and heavy-caliber machine guns tried to breach a barricade. On October 13, the administration of Sánchez de Lozada suspended the gas project "until consultations have been conducted [with the Bolivian people]." However, Vice President Carlos Mesa deplored what he referred to as the "excessive force" used in El Alto (80 dead) and withdrew his support for Sánchez de Lozada. The Minister of Economic Development, Jorge Torrez, of
1278-649: A child hero of the Pacific War, 1879–1884), an aid paid until the end of secondary school to parents whose children are in school in order to combat school dropout, and the Single Health System, which since 2018 has offered all Bolivians free medical care. The reforms adopted made the Bolivian economic system the most successful and stable in the region. Between 2006 and 2019, GDP grew from $ 9 billion to over $ 40 billion, real wages increased, GDP per capita tripled, foreign exchange reserves rose, inflation
1420-543: A clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US government said they had wanted", but that he had chosen to "let history run its course" as desired by Bolivia. Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups d'état , counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out
1562-612: A comparison, the price of gas in the US as a whole in 2006 varied between US$ 5.85 and $ 7.90 per million British thermal units ($ 20.0 and $ 27.0/MWh), although some years earlier the price of natural gas spiked at $ 14 per million BTU in California due to lack of pipeline capacity to and within California as well as due to electricity outages. While according to Le Monde , Brazil and Argentina pay US$ 2 per thousand cubic meter of gas, which costs from $ 12 to $ 15 in California. In 1994,
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#17327937473801704-443: A confrontation in the town of Warisata . Government forces used planes and helicopters to circumvent the strikers and evacuate several hundred foreign and Bolivian tourists from Sorata who had been stranded by the road blockades for five days. In response to the shootings, Bolivia's Labor Union (COB) called a general strike on September 29 that paralyzed the country with road closures. Union leaders insisted they would continue until
1846-543: A contract with Brazil was passed, two years before 1996's privatization of the 70-year-old, state-owned Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales de Bolivia (YPFB). The construction of the Bolivia-Brazil gas pipeline cost US$ 2.2 billion. A consortium called Pacific LNG was formed to exploit the newly discovered reserves. The consortium comprised the British companies BG Group and BP , and Spain 's Repsol YPF . Repsol
1988-475: A decree stating that all gas reserves were to be nationalized: "the state recovers ownership, possession and total and absolute control" of hydrocarbons. The 2006 announcement was met by applause on La Paz's main plaza, where Vice President Alvaro Garcia told the crowd that the government's energy-related revenue would jump US$ 320 million to US$ 780 million in 2007, continuing a trend where revenues had expanded nearly sixfold between 2002 and 2006. The central issue
2130-646: A fourth, and the 2016 Bolivian constitutional referendum asked voters to override the constitution and allow Evo Morales to run for an additional term in office. Morales narrowly lost the referendum; however, in 2017 his party then petitioned the Bolivian Constitutional Court to override the constitution on the basis that the American Convention on Human Rights made term limits a human rights violation. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights determined that term limits are not
2272-414: A government of mere promises: we follow through on what we propose and what the people demand". The announcement was timed to coincide with Labor Day on May 1. Ordering the military and engineers of YPFB , the state firm, to occupy and secure energy installations, he gave foreign companies a six-month "transition period" to re-negotiate contracts, or face expulsion. Nevertheless, president Morales stated that
2414-433: A human rights violation in 2018; however, once again the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales has permission to run for a fourth term in the 2019 elections, and this permission was not retracted. "[T]he country's highest court overruled the constitution, scrapping term limits altogether for every office. Morales can now run for a fourth term in 2019 – and for every election thereafter." The revenues generated by
2556-481: A referendum on the gas issue and appointed several indigenous people to cabinet posts. On July 18, 2004, Mesa put the issue of gas nationalization to a referendum . On May 6, 2005, the Bolivian Congress passed a new law raising taxes from 18% to 32% on profits made by foreign companies on the extraction of oil and gas. Mesa failed to either sign or veto the law, so by law Senate President Hormando Vaca Diez
2698-426: A ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. The Bolivian Workers' Center , which tried to resist the putsch, was violently repressed. More than a thousand people were killed in less than a year. Cousin of one of the most important narco-trafficker of the country, Luis García Meza Tejada favors the production of cocaine. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. At
2840-571: A small white elite and a historically oppressed Quechua and Aymara majority. The first signs of the modern autonomy movement occurred in 2005 when a march for autonomy was attended by hundreds of thousands of people. A result of this was the change in law to allow the election of departmental prefects. Another area of tension was the result of ongoing population shifts and the resulting demands for proportionally greater representation in Bolivia's Congress to reflect these shifts by Santa Cruz. A compromise
2982-466: A standstill in the second half of 2005. Shortages in supply – very similar to those observed in Argentina after the 2001 price-fixing – are deepening in diesel, LPG, and begin to be apparent in natural gas. The May–June social unrest affected the supply of hydrocarbons products to the internal market, principally LPG and natural gas to the occidental region. Brazil implemented a contingency plan – led by
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#17327937473803124-553: A subsequent doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of his term. In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader Evo Morales ( Movement Toward Socialism , MAS) with 20.9%. A July agreement between
3266-449: A succession of military and civilian governments until Hugo Banzer led a US-backed coup d'état in 1971, replacing the socialist government of Juan José Torres with a military dictatorship . Banzer's regime cracked down on left-wing and socialist opposition parties, and other perceived forms of dissent, resulting in the torturing and murders of countless Bolivian citizens. Banzer was ousted in 1978 and, twenty years later, returned as
3408-403: A third term as President of Bolivia. The opposition argued that a third term would be unconstitutional, but the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales' first term under the previous constitution did not count towards his term limit. This allowed Evo Morales to run for a third term in 2014, and he was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote. During his third term, Evo Morales began to plan for
3550-667: A villager. The man detained was one of the heads of the village, and was imprisoned for having sentenced to the death penalty two young men in a "community justice" trial. On September 19, the National Coordination for the Defense of Gas mobilized 30,000 people in Cochabamba and 50,000 in La Paz to demonstrate against the pipeline. The following day six Aymara villagers, including an eight-year-old girl, were killed in
3692-483: A wholly independent state. Sucre opted to create a brand new state and on 6 August 1825, with local support, named it in honor of Simón Bolívar. The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus , Rome, then from Bolívar , Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rómulo, Roma; de Bolívar, Bolivia ). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825. In 2009,
3834-647: Is a charter member of the United Nations (UN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of American States (OAS), Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), Bank of the South , ALBA , and the Union of South American Nations (USAN). Bolivia remains a developing country , and the second-poorest in South America, though it has slashed poverty rates and now has one of the fastest-growing economies on
3976-433: Is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to the southeast, Argentina to the south, Chile to the southwest, and Peru to the west. The seat of government is La Paz , which contains the executive, legislative, and electoral branches of government, while the constitutional capital is Sucre , the seat of the judiciary. The largest city and principal industrial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra , located on
4118-465: Is estimated between $ 8 and $ 12 billion. While Argentina and Chile are large consumers of gas (50 percent and 25 percent respectively), other South American countries are a lot less dependent. On May 1, 2006, president Evo Morales signed a decree stating that all gas reserves were to be nationalized: "the state recovers ownership, possession and total and absolute control" of hydrocarbons. He thus fulfilled his electoral promises, declaring that "We are not
4260-403: Is important not only for the region but also for the country as a whole, especially the gas industry which is exported to Argentina and Brazil. The autonomous region of Gran Chaco is from where most of the gas is exploited. The languages spoken in the department are mainly Spanish and Guaraní , And spoken by the migrants Quechua and Aymara . The following table shows the numbers belonging to
4402-743: Is now the Bolivian Andes, and extending its control into the fringes of the Amazon basin. The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524 and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the authority of Spain. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata—modern Sucre ). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming
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4544-516: Is one of three companies that dominate the gas sector in Bolivia, along with Petrobras and TotalEnergies . A plan costing US$ 6 billion was drawn to build a pipeline to the Pacific coast, where the gas would be processed and liquefied before being shipped to Mexico and the United States ( Baja California and California), through a Chilean port, for example Iquique . The 2003 Lozada deal
4686-722: The University San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca who inspired by the French revolution arose the first uprising of America, which thanks to this revolution in Sucre, the other Ibero-American countries (Latin Americans) were able to revolt and become independent of the Spanish empire. Likewise Bolivia was born as a nation in the city of Sucre, considered by its history the constitutional and historical capital of
4828-576: The Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority. 2009 marked the creation of a new constitution and the renaming of the country to the Plurinational State of Bolivia. The previous constitution did not allow a consecutive reelection of a president, but the new constitution allowed for just one reelection, starting the dispute if Evo Morales
4970-578: The COB trade union) brought the country to a standstill. Violent suppression by the Bolivian armed forces left some 60 people dead in October 2003, mostly inhabitants of El Alto , located on the Altiplano above the seat of government La Paz . The governing coalition disintegrated forcing Goni to resign and leave the country on October 18, 2003. He was succeeded by the vice president, Carlos Mesa , who put
5112-666: The Camisea gas reserves in Peru to Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay . Linking Pisco (south of Peru) to Tocopilla (north of Chile) with a 1200 km pipeline would cost $ 2 billion. However, experts doubt the Camisea reserves are enough for all the Southern Cone countries. Another 8,000 km gas pipeline ( Gran Gasoducto del Sur ) has been proposed that would link Venezuela to Argentina via Brazil. Its cost
5254-620: The Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers. In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer , leader of the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (1971–1978), won 22% of
5396-718: The Chaco War (1932–1935), where Bolivia lost a great part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning-point. On 7 April 1943, Bolivia entered World War II , joining part of the Allies , which caused president Enrique Peñaranda to declare war on the Axis powers of Germany , Italy and Japan . In 1945, Bolivia became a founding member of the United Nations. The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR),
5538-603: The Guarani aquifer ; and, at the same "moment that Washington's magnifying glass goes on the Altiplano and points toward Venezuelan Hugo Chávez — the regional demon according to Bush's administration — as the instigator of the instability in the region" ( Clarín ). Later reports indicated that 400 US troops would be deployed in Paraguay over 18 months for training and humanitarian missions consisting of 13 detachments numbering less than 50 personnel each. The Paraguayan administration as well as Bush's administration denied that
5680-587: The Llanos Orientales (eastern tropical lowlands), a mostly flat region in the east of the country with a diverse non-Andean culture. The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary state divided into nine departments . Its geography varies as the elevation fluctuates, from the western snow-capped peaks of the Andes to the eastern lowlands, situated within the Amazon basin . One-third of
5822-632: The Organization of American States (OAS) released a preliminary report concluding several irregularities in the election, though these findings were heavily disputed. The New York Times reported on 7 June 2020 that the OAS analysis immediately after the 20 October election was flawed yet fuelled "a chain of events that changed the South American nation's history". After weeks of protests, Morales resigned on national television shortly after
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5964-719: The Peru-Bolivian Confederation , with de Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector . Following tension between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories during the War of the Confederation : the defeat of the Argentine expedition and the defeat of
6106-565: The Peruvian government , eager to promote territorial and economic integration, offered Bolivia a special economic zone for 99 years for exporting the gas at Ilo, the right of free passage, and the concession of a 10 km area, including a port, that would be exclusively under Bolivian administration. President Jorge Quiroga postponed the decision shortly before leaving office in July 2002 and left this highly contentious issue to his successor. It
6248-473: The Plan de Todos , which led to the decentralization of government, introduction of intercultural bilingual education , implementation of agrarian legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan, most state-owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were sold. This privatization of SOEs led to
6390-491: The Pro-Santa Cruz Civic Committee declared its own referendum on autonomy for August 12, while in El Alto protesters began to cut off gasoline to La Paz. Approximately half a million people mobilized in the streets of La Paz, on June 6, and President Mesa subsequently offered his resignation. Riot police used tear gas as miners amongst the demonstrators traditionally set off dynamite in clashes near
6532-662: The Tiwanaku Empire , which had its capital at Tiwanaku , in Western Bolivia. The capital city of Tiwanaku dates-back as early as 1500 BC, when it was a small, agriculturally-based village. The Aymara community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes . According to early estimates, the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers (2.5 square miles) at its peak, and had between 15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. However, in 1996, satellite imaging
6674-433: The seventh largest landlocked country on earth, after Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Chad, Niger, Mali, and Ethiopia. The country's population, estimated at 12 million, is multiethnic , including Amerindians , Mestizos , Europeans , Asians , Africans , Arabs , Jews and some other mixtures throughout. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which
6816-524: The state of Acre , in the Acre War , important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded
6958-419: The 1932-35 Chaco War with Paraguay took place in the department's eastern dry lands. Tarija was the home of Víctor Paz Estenssoro , leader of the 1952 Bolivian Revolution and four-time Constitutional President. The main economic activity is the wine industry. The land and climate are ideal for grape and wine production. The city of Tarija holds an annual Festival of Wine and Cheese. The petroleum industry
7100-448: The 76 contracts signed by foreign firms must be renegotiated before 180 days. Protesters argued that the new law did not go far enough to protect the natural resources from exploitation by foreign corporations, demanding a complete nationalization of the gas and process in Bolivia. Due to the uncertainty over renegotiation of contracts, foreign firms have practically stopped investing in the gas sector. Foreign investment virtually came to
7242-561: The Bolivian coast . Chile took control of today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining rich salitre ( saltpeter ) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries. Through diplomatic channels in 1909, it lost the basin of the Madre de Dios River and the territory of the Purus in the Amazon, yielding 250,000 km to Peru. It also lost
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#17327937473807384-402: The Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term. Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale protests erupted in Cochabamba , Bolivia's third largest city at the time, in response to the privatization of water resources by foreign companies and
7526-432: The Bolivian government and the foreign companies intensified during the week leading up to the deadline of Saturday October 28, 2006. On Friday an agreement was reached with two of the companies (including Total ) and by the deadline on Saturday the rest of the ten companies (including Petrobras and Repsol YPF ) operating in Bolivia had also come to an agreement. Full details of the new contracts have not been released, but
7668-511: The Brazilian Braskem firm, which would create 40 000 direct or indirect jobs and cost $ 1.4 billion. This figure is equivalent to the amount so far invested by Repsol, TotalEnergies and Petrobras. The eastern departments of Santa Cruz , Beni , Tarija , and Pando recently had been mobilizing in favor of autonomy. An important issue was opposition to the seizure of resources though nationalization. Community leaders are supported by
7810-673: The Chilean government and public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay . After this defeat, Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved. Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. On 18 November 1841,
7952-549: The Comite Pro Santa Cruz, local co-ops, and by business organizations such as cattle ranchers and farmers. A strike against the new constitution was recently held which was observed in Santa Cruz, Beni, Tarija, and Pando. Tensions have been raised by the cultural and philosophical rift exposed by the push for a new constitution. As a basis for a new constitution, the western, Altiplano -based MAS party envisions
8094-598: The Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces General Williams Kaliman had urged that he do so to restore "peace and stability". Opposition Senator Jeanine Áñez declared herself interim president, claiming constitutional succession after the president, vice president and both head of the legislature chambers. She was confirmed as interim president by the constitutional court who declared her succession to be constitutional and automatic. International politicians, scholars and journalists are divided between describing
8236-570: The Energy and Mines Minister – to mitigate any potential impact from gas export curtailment. Although the supply was never curtailed, the social unrest in Bolivia created a strong sensation that security of supply could not be guaranteed. Occasional social action has continued to affect the continuity of supply, especially valve-closing actions. Over 80,000 people participated in the May 2005 protests. Tens of thousands of people each day walked from El Alto to
8378-438: The French newspaper, only La Paz, El Alto, Sucre , Potosí , Camiri and Santa Cruz are now connected to the gas network; making an interior network which would reach all Bolivians would cost $ 1.5 billion, notwithstanding a central gas pipeline to link the various regions together. According to Carlos Miranda, an independent expert quoted by Le Monde , the best industrialisation project is the petrochemical complex proposed by
8520-616: The MIR party, also resigned. The United States Department of State issued a statement on October 13 declaring its support for Sánchez de Lozada, calling for "Bolivia's political leaders [to] publicly express their support for democratic and constitutional order. The international community and the United States will not tolerate any interruption of constitutional order and will not support any regime that results from undemocratic means". On October 18, Sánchez de Lozada's governing coalition
8662-558: The MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion. In 2003, the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003,
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#17327937473808804-500: The MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño , a former member of the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President Juan José Torres , the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to
8946-600: The Mejillones option would be $ 600 million cheaper. Peru, however, claimed the difference in cost would be no more than $ 300 million. Bolivian proponents of the Peruvian option say it would also benefit the economy of the northern region of Bolivia through which the pipeline would pass. Supporters of the Chile pipeline argued that U.S. financiers would be unlikely to develop processing facilities within Bolivia. Meanwhile,
9088-413: The Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent. Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at Salta. Bolivia
9230-437: The United States. The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation to Congress, which
9372-468: The Warisata massacre. Protesters also voiced their opposition to the Free Trade Area of the Americas agreement that was at the time under negotiation by the US and Latin American countries (since the November 2005 Mar del Plata Summit of the Americas , it has been put on stand-by). On October 12, 2003, the government imposed martial law in El Alto after sixteen people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes which erupted when
9514-661: The airport would be used as a US military base, or that there would be any other US base in Paraguay. The social conflicts paralyzed Bolivia's political life for a time. The unpopularity of the neoliberal Washington consensus , a set of economic strategies implemented by Gonzalo de Lozada's administration, set the stage for the 2006 election of president Evo Morales. In the meantime, Chile promptly started to build several coastal terminals to receive shipments of liquefied natural gas from Indonesia , Australia and other sources. Other South American countries are contemplating other ways to secure gas supplies: one project aims at linking
9656-403: The battle de Ingavi took place, in which the Bolivian Army defeated the Peruvian troops of Gamarra (killed in the battle). After the victory, Bolivia invaded Peru on several fronts. The eviction of the Bolivian troops from the south of Peru would be achieved by the greater availability of material and human resources of Peru; the Bolivian Army did not have enough troops to maintain an occupation. In
9798-449: The capital La Paz , where protesters effectively shut down the city, bringing transportation to a halt through strikes and blockades, and engaging in street battles with police. The protestors demanded the nationalisation of the gas industry and reforms to give more power to the indigenous majority, who were mainly Aymaras from the impoverished highlands. They were pushed back by the police with tear gas and rubber bullets , while many of
9940-412: The carved archaeology known in Quechua as "El Fuerte." This intervention by different ethnic groups outside their territories was a dispute between Amazonian and Andean cultures, and the Incas were later expelled by the Guaraní tribes in defense of their territories in the eastern plains of Bolivia. Spanish conquistadores , arriving from Cusco , Peru, and Asunción , Paraguay, forcibly took control of
10082-495: The city of Sucre on 25 May 1809 and the Chuquisaca Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is known as the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. That revolution was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16 July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish King deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by
10224-461: The commander Juan Buendía defeated a detachment led by Bolivian colonel José María García, who died in the confrontation. Bolivian troops left Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá in February 1842, retreating towards Moquegua and Puno. The battles of Motoni and Orurillo forced the withdrawal of Bolivian forces occupying Peruvian territory and exposed Bolivia to the threat of counter-invasion. The Treaty of Puno
10366-561: The conciliation phase with the state of Bolivia. The treaties are a step towards a court hearing before the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID), dependent of the World Bank , which could force Bolivia to pay indemnities to the companies. A military training agreement with Asunción ( Paraguay ), giving immunity to US soldiers , caused some concern after media reports initially reported that
10508-471: The conditions attached to the loan were unacceptable. On 26 June 2024, a military coup attempt led by Juan José Zúñiga ended after lasting only 5 hours. In the evening of 26 June, Bolivian police arrested Zúñiga. Tarija Department Tarija ( Spanish pronunciation: [taˈɾixa] ) is a department in Bolivia . It is located in south-eastern Bolivia bordering with Argentina to
10650-433: The continent (in terms of GDP). Its main economic resources include agriculture, forestry , fishing, mining, and goods such as textiles and clothing, refined metals, and refined petroleum . Bolivia is very geologically rich , with mines producing tin , silver, lithium , and copper. The country is also known for its production of coca plants and refined cocaine . In 2021, estimated coca cultivation and cocaine production
10792-527: The country is within the Andean mountain range. With an area of 1,098,581 km (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the fifth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Colombia, and, alongside Paraguay, is one of two landlocked countries in the Americas. It is the 27th largest country in the world , the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere , and
10934-542: The country since August 6, 1825 sixteen years of fighting would follow before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar . Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bolivia lost control of several peripheral territories to neighboring countries, such as Brazil's of the Acre territory, and the War of the Pacific (1879), in which Chile seized the country's Pacific coastal region. Bolivia experienced
11076-560: The country's foremost agricultural regions. Its citizens have traditionally felt close to, and conducted a lively international trade with, neighboring towns of northern Argentina. Between 1816 and 1898, the region was part of Argentina, and was ceded to Bolivia in exchange for Puna de Atacama . Tarija boasts South America's second-largest natural gas reserves. Increased gas revenues and foreign direct investment in gas exploration and distribution are fueling growth and turning Tarija into Bolivia's next industrial hub. Political instability at
11218-424: The country's gas reserves. Brazil's Energy Minister, Silas Rondeau , reacted by considering the move as "unfriendly" and contrary to previous understandings between his country and Bolivia. Petrobras, Spain's Repsol YPF , UK gas and oil producer BG Group Plc and France's Total are the main gas companies present in the country. According to Reuters , "Bolivia's actions echo what Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez ,
11360-404: The country, leading to increasingly violent confrontations with the Bolivian armed forces. The insurrection was spearheaded by Bolivia's indigenous majority, who accused Sánchez de Lozada of pandering to the US government's " war on drugs " and blamed him for failing to improve living standards in Bolivia. On September 8, 650 Aymaras started a hunger strike to protest against the state detention of
11502-406: The current law, the exportation of the gas as a raw material would give Bolivia only 18% of the future profits, or US$ 40 million to US$ 70 million per year. They further argued that exporting the gas so cheaply would be the latest case of foreign exploitation of Bolivia's natural resources, starting with its silver and gold from the 17th century. They demanded that a plant be built in Bolivia to process
11644-514: The declining importance of tin mines, those reserves accounted for the majority of foreign investment in Bolivia. The price which Bolivia is paid for its natural gas is roughly US$ 3.25 per million British thermal units ($ 11.1/MWh) to Brazil and $ 3.18 per million BTU to Argentina . Other sources state that Brazil pays between $ 3.15 and $ 3.60 per million BTU, not including $ 1.50 per million BTU in Petrobras extraction and transportation costs. As
11786-409: The democratically elected President of Bolivia (1997–2001). Under the 2006–2019 presidency of Evo Morales , the country saw significant economic growth and political stability, but was also widely accused of democratic backsliding and was described as a competitive authoritarian regime. Freedom House classifies Bolivia as a partly-free democracy as of 2023, with a 66/100 score. Modern Bolivia
11928-488: The district of Locumba – Tacna, a column of Peruvian soldiers and peasants defeated a Bolivian regiment in the so-called Battle of Los Altos de Chipe (Locumba). In the district of Sama and in Arica, the Peruvian colonel José María Lavayén organized a troop that managed to defeat the Bolivian forces of Colonel Rodríguez Magariños and threaten the port of Arica. In the battle of Tarapacá on 7 January 1842, Peruvian militias formed by
12070-587: The eastern side of the lowlands of the north and east of the country were inhabited by independent non-Andean Amazonian tribes with their own civilization and language, cultures and ethnicities that prevail to this day. One of the best known archaeologies of the Chané-Guaraní culture is found in Samaipata , Bolivia. The largest carved stone in the world was later populated by the Incas and the Spanish, who found
12212-462: The economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first 30 years of the 20th century. Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population, remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access to education, economic opportunity, and political participation . Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in
12354-710: The end of his first term of office (1956–1960). In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada was elected president in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement , which inspired indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies. Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was privatization under the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments. In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced
12496-543: The end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, " Bueno, me quedo ", or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]". After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress , elected in 1980, and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22 years after
12638-519: The event as a coup or a spontaneous social uprising against an unconstitutional fourth term. Protests to reinstate Morales as president continued becoming highly violent: burning public buses and private houses, destroying public infrastructure and harming pedestrians. The protests were met with more violence by security forces against Morales supporters after Áñez exempted police and military from criminal responsibility in operations for "the restoration of order and public stability". In April 2020,
12780-419: The exploitation of the country's vast natural gas reserves. The expression can be extended to refer to the general conflict in Bolivia over the exploitation of gas resources, thus including the 2005 protests and the election of Evo Morales as president. Before these protests, Bolivia had seen a series of similar earlier protests during the Cochabamba protests of 2000 , which were against the privatization of
12922-483: The first Chilean expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa . The Chilean army and its Peruvian rebel allies surrendered unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, Chile would return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. However,
13064-608: The first regiment of the National Police decided, by consensus, not to repress the protests and were internally reprimanded by the government. On June 2, as the protests raged on, President Mesa announced two measures, designed to placate the indigenous protesters on the one hand and the Santa Cruz autonomy movement on the other: elections for a new constitutional assembly and a referendum on regional autonomy, both set for October 16. However, both sides rejected Mesa's call:
13206-409: The free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in the coca sector depressed
13348-484: The gas and that domestic consumption had to be met before export. As Le Monde puts it, "two reasons plead for the industrial exploitation of the gas, which the multinational companies now have the capacities of doing. The first is related to the necessity of satisfying the Bolivians' energy needs. The second demonstrates the interest of exporting a more profitable product rather than selling raw material". According to
13490-455: The gas issue to a referendum on July 18, 2004. In May 2005, under duress from protesters, the Bolivian congress enacted a new hydrocarbons law, increasing the state's royalties from natural gas exploitation. However, protesters, who included Evo Morales and Felipe Quispe , demanded full nationalization of hydrocarbon resources, and the increased participation of Bolivia's indigenous majority, mainly composed of Aymaras and Quechuas , in
13632-528: The government backed down on its decision. Poorly armed Aymara community militias drove the army and police out of Warisata and the towns of Sorata and Achacachi, equipped only with traditional Aymara sling shots and guns from the 1952 Bolivian National Revolution . Eugenio Rojas, leader of the regional strike committee, declared that if the government refused to negotiate in Warisata, then the insurgent Aymara communities would surround La Paz and cut it off from
13774-407: The government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of resigning or more bloodshed, Sánchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted and his vice president, Carlos Mesa , invested, he left on a commercially scheduled flight for
13916-586: The interim government took out a loan of more than $ 327 million from the International Monetary Fund to meet the country's needs during the COVID-19 pandemic . New elections were scheduled for 3 May 2020. In response to the coronavirus pandemic , the Bolivian electoral body, the TSE, made an announcement postponing the election. MAS reluctantly agreed with the first delay only. A date for
14058-469: The interruption, the official count showed Morales fractionally clearing the 10-point margin he needed to avoid a runoff election, with the final official tally counted as 47.08 percent to Mesa's 36.51 percent, starting a wave of protests and tension in the country. Amidst allegations of fraud perpetrated by the Morales government, widespread protests were organized to dispute the election. On 10 November,
14200-451: The land for what he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded with Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil. In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability. During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by
14342-654: The largest city in the New World with a population exceeding 150,000 people. By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for the Spanish Empire . A steady stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft system called the mita . Charcas was transferred to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 and
14484-530: The largest geographic extension of Amazonian plains and lowlands, mountains and Chaco with a tropical climate, valleys with a warm climate, as well as being part of the Andes of South America and its high plateau areas with cold climates, hills and snow-capped mountains, with a wide biome in each city and region. It includes part of the Pantanal , the largest tropical wetland in the world, along its eastern border. It
14626-470: The measure and put it into effect. The new law returned legal ownership to the state of all hydrocarbons and natural resources, maintained royalties at 18 percent, but increased taxes from 16 to 32 percent. It gave the government control of the commercialization of the resources and allowed for continuous government control with annual audits. It also ordered companies to consult with indigenous groups who live on land containing gas deposits. The law stated that
14768-485: The military to airlift food to La Paz, which remained totally blockaded. Vaca Diez and House of Delegates president, Mario Cossío , were the two next in the line of succession to become president. However, they were strongly disliked by the protesters, and each declared they would not accept succession to the presidency, finally promoting Eduardo Rodríguez , Supreme Court Chief Justice, to the presidency. Considered apolitical and hence trustworthy by most, his administration
14910-455: The miners involved in the protests came armed with dynamite . May 24, 2005 More than 10,000 Aymara peasant farmers from the twenty highland provinces came down from El Alto ' s Ceja neighborhood into La Paz to protest. On May 31, 2005, residents of El Alto and the Aymara peasant farmers returned to La Paz. More than 50,000 people covered an area of nearly 100 square kilometers. The next day,
15052-591: The most commonly spoken are Guaraní , Aymara , and Quechua . Well before Spanish colonization , the third part of the high region of Bolivia was an Andean part of great Inca Empire , among which was born the most important culture of America: the Tihuanaco culture in La Paz-Bolivia that converges the ruins of Pumapunko that had a great commercial influence in the Andes of South America reaching Ecuador, Chile and Peru. The largest territory of Bolivia on
15194-554: The most direct route to the Pacific Ocean . However, antagonism towards Chile runs deep in Bolivia because of the loss of Bolivia's Pacific coastline to Chile in the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Bolivians began campaigning against the Chilean option, arguing instead that the pipeline should be routed north through the Peruvian port of Ilo , 260 km further from the gas fields than Mejillones, or, better yet, first industrialized in Bolivia. According to Chilean estimates,
15336-468: The most historic political party, emerged as a broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro , the MNR, having strong popular pressure, introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin mines. Twelve years of tumultuous rule left
15478-460: The municipal water supply . The conflict had its roots in grievances over the government's economic policies concerning natural gas, as well as coca eradication policies, corruption and violent military responses against strikes . The "Bolivian gas war" thus came to a head in October 2003, leading to the resignation of President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (aka "Goni"). Strikes and road blocks mounted by indigenous and labour groups (including
15620-425: The national level has hindered development of the reserves, as the region has chosen to align with pro-autonomy forces which aim at the devolution of considerable powers away from the central government in favor of the departments. More than 20 different indigenous tribes, ranging in population from 20 persons up to 1500, live in the region. The Guaraní is the largest tribe. Important battles and events related to
15762-411: The nationalization would not take the form of expropriations or confiscations . Vice President Álvaro García Linera said in La Paz's main plaza that the government's energy-related revenue will jump to $ 780 million next year, expanding nearly sixfold from 2002. Among the 53 installations affected by the measure are those of Brazil's Petrobras , one of Bolivia's largest investors, which controls 14% of
15904-579: The new election was delayed twice more, in the face of massive protests and violence. The final proposed date for the elections was 18 October 2020. Observers from the OAS, UNIORE, and the UN all reported that they found no fraudulent actions in the 2020 elections. The general election had a record voter turnout of 88.4% and ended in a landslide win for MAS which took 55.1% of the votes compared to 28.8% for centrist former president Carlos Mesa. Both Mesa and Áñez conceded defeat. On 8 November 2020, Luis Arce
16046-545: The objective of raising government share of revenues from the two major fields from 60 percent to 82 percent seems to have been achieved. Revenue share for the government from minor fields is set at 60 percent. Bolivia in South America (gray) Bolivia , officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country located in central South America . It is a country with
16188-624: The partial nationalization of hydrocarbons made it possible to finance several social measures: the Renta Dignidad (or old age minimum) for people over 60 years old; the Juana Azurduy voucher (named after the revolutionary Juana Azurduy de Padilla, 1780–1862), which ensures the complete coverage of medical expenses for pregnant women and their children in order to fight infant mortality; the Juancito Pinto voucher (named after
16330-687: The people from Buenos Aires, the capital of the Viceroyalty, coined the term " Upper Peru " (Spanish: Alto Peru ) as a popular reference to the Royal Audiencia of Charcas. Túpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781, during which 20,000 people died. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic Wars , sentiment against colonial rule grew. The struggle for independence started in
16472-468: The political life of the country. On June 6, 2005, Mesa was forced to resign as tens of thousands of protesters caused daily blockades to La Paz from the rest of the country. Morales' election at the end of 2005 was met with enthusiasm by the social movements, because he was, as the leader of left-wing MAS , one of the staunchest opponents to the exportation of the gas without corresponding industrialization in Bolivia. On May 1, 2006, President Morales signed
16614-404: The presidency in 1997 through 2001. Juan José Torres, who had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of Operation Condor , the U.S.-supported campaign of political repression by South American right-wing dictators. The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) financed and trained the Bolivian military dictatorship in the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara
16756-520: The presidential palace, while a strike brought traffic to a standstill. However, Congress failed to meet for several days owing to the "insecurity" of meeting as protests raged nearby. Many members of Congress found themselves unable to physically attend the sessions. Senate President Hormando Vaca Díez decided to move the sessions to Bolivia's capital, Sucre , in an attempt to avoid the protesters. Radical farmers occupied oil wells owned by transnational companies, and blockaded border crossings. Mesa ordered
16898-466: The protests continued, protesters in El Alto , a sprawling indigenous city of 750,000 people on the periphery of La Paz, proceeded to block key access routes to the capital causing severe fuel and food shortages. They also demanded the resignation of Sánchez de Lozada and his ministers, Yerko Kukoc , Minister of Government, and Carlos Sánchez de Berzaín , Minister of Defense, who were held responsible for
17040-493: The region in the 16th century. During the subsequent Spanish colonial period , Bolivia was administered by the Real Audiencia of Charcas . Spain built its empire, in large part, upon the silver that was extracted from Potosí Bolivia's mines , from there, the globalization of the world arose by creating the first silver coins, which were then stamped with the " $ " sign, inspired by Potosí and Spanish royalty. There,
17182-554: The rest of the country — a tactic employed in the Túpaj Katari uprising of 1781. Felipe Quispe , leader of the Indigenous Pachakuti Movement (MIP), stated that he would not participate in dialogue with the government until the military withdrew from blockaded areas. The government refused to negotiate with Quispe, claiming that he did not have the authority to represent the campesino movement. As
17324-592: The saying was born: "You are worth a Potosí", which means innumerable wealth. In fact, Bolivia was the first territory where the First Libertarian Cry of Latin America arose in the city of Charcas or city of the four names, now known as the city of Sucre - Bolivia on May 25, 1809, being the first region of rebellion against the Spanish empire of an entire continent based on the Creole law students of
17466-483: The south and Paraguay to the east. According to the 2024 census, it has a population of 534,348 inhabitants. It has an area of 37,623 km (14,526 sq mi). The city of Tarija is the capital of the department. The department is divided into five provinces and one autonomous region: Notable places in Tarija include: The Department of Tarija is renowned for its mild, pleasant climate, and comprises one of
17608-817: The southeastern Tarija Department , which contains 85% of gas and petrol reserves. According to the United States Department of Energy , another 10.6% is located within the department of Santa Cruz and 2.5% in the Cochabamba Department . After further exploration from 1996 to 2002, the estimated size of the probable gas reserves was calculated to be 12.5 times larger, passing from 4.24 × 10 ^ cu ft (120 km) to 52.3 × 10 ^ cu ft (1,480 km). This number has declined somewhat to 48 × 10 ^ cu ft (1,400 km) probable reserves. The proven reserves are 26.7 × 10 ^ cu ft (760 km). With
17750-534: The vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to eradicate physically the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR) of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan). The Banzer government basically continued
17892-588: Was 39,700 hectares and 317 metric tons, respectively. Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar , a Venezuelan leader in the Spanish American wars of independence . The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre , had been given the option by Bolívar to either unite Charcas (present-day Bolivia) with the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , or to formally declare its independence from Spain as
18034-442: Was Bolivia's large natural gas reserves and the prospect for their future sale and use. The Bolivian gas reserves are the second largest in South America after Venezuela , and exploration after the privatization of the national oil company YPFB showed that proven natural gas reserves were 600% higher than previously known. The cash-poor, state-owned company could not afford the exploration costs. These reserves mainly are located in
18176-544: Was a temporary one until elections could be held. Protesters quickly disbanded in many areas, and like many times in Bolivia's past, major political upheavals were taken as a normal part of the political process. Caretaker President Rodríguez proceeded to implement the Hydrocarbons Law. The new tax IDH has been levied from the companies that are paying 'under reserve'. A number of upstream gas companies have invoked Bilateral Investment Protection Treaties and entered
18318-499: Was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo Rodríguez , was sworn as interim president to succeed the outgoing Carlos Mesa. Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7% of the votes. On 1 May 2006, Morales announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets following protests which demanded this action. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales opened
18460-466: Was enabled to run for a second term arguing he was elected under the last constitution. This also triggered a new general election in which Evo Morales was re-elected with 61.36% of the vote. His party, Movement for Socialism , also won a two-thirds majority in both houses of the National Congress . By 2013, after being reelected under the new constitution, Evo Morales and his party attempted
18602-547: Was essentially eliminated, and extreme poverty fell from 38% to 15%, a 23-point drop. During the 2019 elections, the Transmisión de Resultados Electorales Preliminares (TREP) (a quick count process used in Latin America as a transparency measure in electoral processes) was interrupted; at the time, Morales had a lead of 46.86 percent to Mesa's 36.72, after 95.63 percent of tally sheets were counted. Two days after
18744-512: Was fatally weakened when the New Republic Force party withdrew its support. He was forced to resign and was replaced by his vice president, Carlos Mesa, a former journalist. The strikes and roadblocks were lifted. Mesa promised that no civilians would be killed by police or army forces during his presidency. Despite dramatic unrest during his time in office, he respected this promise. Among his first actions as president, Mesa promised
18886-468: Was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Marshal Antonio José de Sucre , with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of Simón Bolívar . After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August 1825. In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz , invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis José de Orbegoso . Peru and Bolivia formed
19028-508: Was killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Félix Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara. Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been killed in action during
19170-547: Was not a violent or domineering culture; to expand its reach, the state exercised great political astuteness, created colonies, fostered local trade agreements (which made other cultures rather dependent), and instituted state cults. As rainfall gradually decreased, the stores of food supplies decreased, and thus the elites lost power. Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000. The area remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter. Between 1438 and 1527, Incan Empire expanded from its capital at Cusco , gaining control over much of what
19312-507: Was opposed heavily by Bolivian society, in part because of nationalism (Bolivia feels resentment after the territorial losses of the War of the Pacific in the late 19th century, which deprived it of the Litoral province and hence access to the sea). Government ministers hoped to use the gas profits to bolster the sagging Bolivian economy and claimed the money would be invested exclusively in health and education. Opponents argued that under
19454-572: Was reached to allow Santa Cruz to receive some of the seats warranted by population growth, and for the highlands to keep seats despite population losses. Left-wing intellectuals Walter Chávez and Álvaro García Linera (former Bolivian Vice President and MAS party member) published an article in the Monthly Review asserting that autonomy has been historically a demand of the Santa Cruz region, "contemporarily imbued with far-right, populist sentiments." They also qualified Santa Cruz autonomy as
19596-403: Was required to sign it into law on May 17. Many protesters felt this law was inadequate and demanded full nationalization of the gas and oil industry. On May 6, 2005, the long-awaited Hydrocarbons Law was finally approved by the Bolivian Congress. On May 17 Mesa again refused to either sign or veto the controversial law, thus constitutionally requiring Senate President Hormando Vaca Díez to sign
19738-437: Was signed on 7 June 1842, ending the war. However, the climate of tension between Lima and La Paz would continue until 1847, when the signing of a Peace and Trade Treaty became effective. A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia, including
19880-566: Was sworn in as President of Bolivia alongside his Vice President David Choquehuanca . In February 2021, the Arce government returned an amount of around $ 351 million to the IMF. This comprised a loan of $ 327 million taken out by the interim government in April 2020 and interest of around $ 24 million. The government said it returned the loan to protect Bolivia's economic sovereignty and because
20022-486: Was thought Quiroga did not want to jeopardize his chances of re-election as president in the 2007 elections. After winning the 2002 presidential election Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada expressed his preference for the Mejillones option but made no "official" decision. The Gas War led to his resignation in October 2003. The social conflict escalated in September 2003 with protests and road blockages paralyzing large parts of
20164-580: Was used to map the extent of preserved suka kollus ( flooded raised fields ) across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, with the results suggesting a population-carrying capacity of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people. Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally-dominant force to a 'predatory' state, aggressively expanding its reach into the Yungas and bringing its culture and ways to new peoples in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. Nonetheless, Tiwanaku
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