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77-570: The units were part of the Austro-Hungarian infantry in 1914 and consisted of four infantry regiments (numbered 1–4) and a Field Rifles Battalion ( Feldjägerbataillon ). The Congress of Berlin of 1878 assigned two Ottoman provinces, the Vilayet of Bosnia and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar to administration by Austro-Hungary . In July of the same year Austrian troops began the occupation of

154-786: A "second Piedmont". The recognition of the Bulgarian Exarchate by the Ottomans in 1870 had been intended to separate the Bulgarians, religiously from the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , and politically from Serbia. Pan-Slavism required the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. How and whether that goal would be realised was the major question to be answered at the Congress of Berlin. The Balkans were

231-570: A Commander's Cross, and a breast star to be worn by holders of the Grand Cross. Prospective recipients were considered only in regard to their military service records; their ethnicity , birth and rank (as long as they were commissioned officers) were irrelevant. Knight's Cross recipients were automatically ennobled with the title of Ritter in the Austrian nobility for life, and admitted to court. Upon further petition, they could claim

308-648: A Military Law ( Wehrgesetz ) imposing an obligation upon all Bosnians to serve in the Imperial Army." This led to widespread riots through December 1881 and January 1882 - which were suppressed by military means. The Austrians appealed to the Mufti of Sarajevo , Mustafa Hilmi Hadžiomerović (born 1816) and he soon issued a Fatwa "calling on the muslims to obey military Law." Other important Muslim community leaders such as Mehmed-beg Kapetanović , later Mayor of Sarajevo , also appealed to young Muslim men to serve in

385-567: A campaign that were undertaken on [the officer's] own initiative, and might have been omitted by an honorable officer without reproach." This gave rise to a popular myth that it was awarded for (successfully) acting against an explicit order. It is considered to be the highest honour for a soldier in the Austrian armed services. Originally, the order had two classes: the Knight's Cross and the Grand Cross. On 15 October 1765, Emperor Joseph II added

462-440: A compensation for Southern Bessarabia, but even so it did not benefit of substantial gain of territory despite its consistent war effort alongside Russia. Romanians deeply resented the loss of Southern Bessarabia and Russo-Romanian relationship remained very cold for decades. Montenegro obtained Nikšić , along with the primary Albanian regions of Podgorica , Bar and Plav-Gusinje . The Ottoman government, or Porte , agreed to obey

539-531: A different uniform. The officers and cadets wore the same uniform as the Tyrolean Jägerbataillon , while the ordinary soldiers wore grey uniforms with green facings and the red-brown fez. The žandamerijski corps wore the standard jäger hat with black feathers. In 1908 "pike-grey" (light blue-grey) uniforms were introduced for field service and ordinary duty wear. The pale blue tunics and breeches were retained for parade and off-duty wear until

616-490: A disintegrating Ottoman Empire. According to historian Erich Eyck , Bismarck supported Russia's position that "Turkish rule over a Christian community (Bulgaria) was an anachronism which undoubtedly gave rise to insurrection and bloodshed and should therefore be ended". He used the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 as proof of growing animosity in the region. Bismarck's ultimate goal during the Congress of Berlin

693-691: A display of Pan-Slavic hegemonic ambition in southeastern Europe. In Imperial Russia, Pan-Slavism meant the creation of a unified Slavic state, under Russian direction, and was essentially a byword for Russian conquest of the Balkan peninsula. The realisation of the goal would have given Russia control of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus , thus economic control of the Black Sea and substantially greater geopolitical power. That desire evolved similarly to

770-648: A large Principality of Bulgaria as an autonomous vassal of the sultan. That expanded Russia's sphere of influence to encompass the entire Balkans, which alarmed other powers in Europe. Britain, which had threatened war with Russia if it occupied Constantinople , and France did not want another power meddling in either the Mediterranean or the Middle East, where both powers were prepared to make large colonial gains . Austria-Hungary desired Habsburg control over

847-457: A major stage for competition between the European great powers in the second half of the 19th century. Britain and Russia had interests in the fate of the Balkans. Russia was interested in the region, both ideologically, as a pan-Slavist unifier, and practically, to secure greater control of the Mediterranean. Britain was interested in preventing Russia from accomplishing its goals. Furthermore,

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924-401: A minor stumble on the road to Russian hegemony in the Balkans, it actually gave Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia over to Austria-Hungary's sphere of influence and essentially removed all Russian influence from the area. The Serbs were upset with "Russia... consenting to the cession of Bosnia to Austria": Ristić who was Serbia's first plenipotentiary at Berlin tells how he asked Jomini, one of

1001-633: A mix of Greek Catholics, Jews and Protestants. Regardless of religious faith all other ranks wore the fez. In the course of the war the Bosnian-Herzegovinian infantry regiments (including jägers) expanded to a maximum of 36 battalions. Each had a strength of about 1,200 men when at full strength. The pressures of heavy casualties led to a breakdown of rigid regional recruitment after 1915, with Hungarian, Polish, Czech and Ukrainian troops serving in Bosnian units, while Bosnians were drafted into

1078-483: A reform of the existing systems. There was ongoing communal tension and resistance to Habsburg rule in many rural areas, especially in Herzegovina and along the eastern border with Montenegro . "The Austrians set up a special local militia force there, the ' Pandurs '; but many of these militia men became rebellious themselves, and some took to brigandage." "In November 1881 the Austro-Hungarian government passed

1155-416: A special administration, and the region of Macedonia was returned to the Ottomans on condition of reforms to its governance. The results were initially hailed as a success for peace in the region, but most of the participants were not satisfied with the outcome. The Ottomans were humiliated and had their weakness confirmed as the " sick man of Europe ". Russia resented the lack of rewards, despite having won

1232-479: A stronger Austria-Hungarian Empire, which threatened basically no one, to a powerful Russia, which had been locked in competition with Britain in the so-called Great Game for most of the century. Gorchakov said, "I consider the Berlin Treaty the darkest page in my life". Many Russians were furious over the European repudiation of their political gains, and though there was some thought that it represented only

1309-431: A tassel of black sheep's wool. This tassel was 18.5 cm long and mounted on a rosette fringes. The fez had to be worn so that the tassel was at the back. Officers and cadets usually wore standard Austrian military infantry rigid black caps or full-dress shakos . However, if officers were Muslim, they had the option of wearing the fez. Tunics and blouses were consistent with those of the standard "German" line infantry of

1386-756: Is now called the " Passo del Bosniaco " (Pass of the Bosniak). In honour of the Fourth regiment a monument has been erected on the eastern slope of Rombon mountain in Slovenia . Two Bosnian soldiers wearing fez are carved on granite, which takes into account the Rombon. The monument was made by Ladislav Kofranek, a sculptor from Prague . In 1929 the Army History Museum in Vienna erected a Memorial Plaque to

1463-753: The Albanian Legion consisted of Albanian clansman from mostly the regions of Northern Albania and Kosovo. Captain Gojkomir Glogovac was awarded Austria-Hungary's highest military honour, the Military Order of Maria Theresa , for extreme bravery in 1917; he was subsequently ennobled as Baron Glogovac . Another prominent Bosnian officer to rise in the ranks was Colonel Hussein Biscevic (Husein Biščević or Biščević-beg) who later served in

1540-478: The Congress of Vienna , they were to be sadly disappointed. Bismarck, unhappy to be conducting the Congress in the heat of the summer, had a short temper and a low tolerance for malarky. Thus, any grandstanding was cut short by the testy German chancellor. The ambassadors from the small Balkan territories whose fate was being decided were barely even allowed to attend the diplomatic meetings, which were between mainly

1617-584: The First and Second Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913 respectively). Continuing nationalism in the Balkans was one of the causes of the First World War in 1914. In the decades leading up to the congress, Russia and the Balkans had been gripped by Pan-Slavism , a movement to unite all the Balkan Slavs under one rule. The Treaty of San Stefano , which had created a " Greater Bulgaria ", was opposed as

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1694-751: The First World War . In the 'Salisbury Circular' of 1 April 1878, the British Foreign Secretary, the Marquess of Salisbury , clarified the objections of him and the government to the Treaty of San Stefano because of the favorable position in which it left Russia. In 1954, the British historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote: "If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary might have survived to

1771-618: The Habsburg monarchy , Austrian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire . Founded on 18 June 1757, the day of the Battle of Kolín , by the Empress Maria Theresa , the honour was to reward especially meritorious and valorous acts by commissioned officers, including and especially the courageous act of defeating an enemy, and thus "serving" their monarch. It was specifically given for "successful military acts of essential impact to

1848-445: The K.u.K. Army. The buttons were of bronze metal, carrying the appropriate regimental number. Officers' uniforms consisted of light blue tunics, with red collar and yellow buttons, and light blue trousers. Ordinary soldiers had a light blue uniform with red facings . Included were widely cut oriental-style breeches, which narrowed below the knee (see coloured illustrations above). The Field Rifles Battalion ( Feldjägerbataillon ) had

1925-607: The Ottoman Empire . Delegates from Greece , Romania, Serbia and Montenegro attended the sessions that concerned their states, but they were not members. The Congress was solicited by Russia's rivals, particularly Austria-Hungary and Britain, and was hosted in 1878 by Bismarck. It proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin . The meetings were held at Bismarck's Reich Chancellery , the former Radziwill Palace, from 13 June to 13 July 1878. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of

2002-455: The Ottomans ; and four Balkan states: Greece , Serbia , Romania and Montenegro . The congress concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin , replacing the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano which had been signed three months earlier. The leader of the congress, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , sought to stabilise the Balkans, reduce the role of the defeated Ottoman Empire in

2079-555: The Pan-Germanism and Pan-Italianism , which had resulted in two unifications, took different forms in the various Slavic nations. Balkan Slavs felt they needed both an equivalent to Piedmont to serve as a base and an outside sponsor corresponding to France. The state that was meant to serve as the locus for unification of the Balkans under a "Slavic" rule was not always clear, as initiative wafted between Serbia and Bulgaria. Italian rhetoric by contrast cast Romania as Latin ,

2156-460: The Unifications of Italy and of Germany had stymied the ability of a third European power, Austria-Hungary, to expand its domain to the southwest any further. Germany, as the most powerful continental nation since the 1871 Franco-Prussian War had little direct interest in the settlement and so was the only power that could mediate the Balkan question credibly. Russia and Austria-Hungary,

2233-542: The Waffen SS . Muhamed Hadžiefendić (1898–1943) served as a lieutenant in a Bosnian-Herzegovinian unit during World War I . Bosnian infantry regiments had several uniform features which distinguished them from other units of the Austro-Hungarian army. The most distinctive of these garments was the Oriental fez , which was worn both on parade and in field uniform. The fez was made of reddish-brown felt and equipped with

2310-475: The " Die Bosniaken Kommen " march to honour the k.u.k. Bosnian soldiers, the second Infantry Regiment in particular. Many Bosnian soldiers from the Second Regiment died over 1916 and 1917 in fighting in north Italy during World War I and were subsequently buried in the small village of Lebring-Sankt Margarethen , near Graz , Austria . Since 1917 locals have held a modest memorial service to mark

2387-419: The 20th century. Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring

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2464-616: The 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano . Furthermore, by using as a foundation the Treaties of Paris (1856) and of Washington (1871), the treaty rearranged the East. The principal mission of the participants at the Congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of pan-Slavism . The movement caused serious concern in Berlin and even more so in Vienna, which was afraid that

2541-426: The Austrian proposals relative to Bosnia-Herzegovina about to come before the congress while Austria would support British demands". The Congress of Berlin is frequently viewed as the culmination of the battle between Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and Otto von Bismarck of Germany. Both were able to persuade other European leaders that a free and independent Bulgaria would greatly improve the security risks posed by

2618-544: The Austro-Hungarian Empire in later decades. The League of the Three Emperors , established in 1873, was destroyed since Russia saw lack of German support on the issue of Bulgaria's full independence as a breach of loyalty and the alliance. The border between Greece and Turkey was not resolved. In 1881, after protracted negotiations, a compromise border was accepted after a naval demonstration of

2695-527: The Balkans, and Germany wanted to prevent its ally from going to war. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck thus called the Congress of Berlin to discuss the partition of the Ottoman Balkans among the European powers and to preserve the League of Three Emperors in the face of the spread of European liberalism . The Congress was attended by Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy , Russia and

2772-551: The Balkans. Although Austria-Hungary gained substantial territory, this angered the South Slavs and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, culminating in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . In the long term, the settlement led to rising tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary, and disputes over nationalism in the Balkans. Grievances with the results of the congress festered until they exploded in

2849-584: The Bosnian Herzegovinian Infantry Regiment Association ( Regimentsverband der Bosnisch-Hercegowinischen Infanterie ) in order to integrate them into the rest of the Imperial Austrian army. On 1 January 1894 a "Most High Resolution" ( Allerhöchste Entschließung ) formalised this measure but it proved to be difficult and was not completed until 1897. The Field Rifles Battalion ( Feldjägerbataillon )

2926-624: The Bosnian veterans. Congress of Berlin The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a diplomatic conference to reorganise the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, which had been won by Russia against the Ottoman Empire . Represented at the meeting were Europe's then six great powers : Russia , Great Britain , France , Austria-Hungary , Italy , and Germany ;

3003-472: The British, who considered the entire Mediterranean to be a British sphere of influence and saw any Russian attempt to gain access there as a grave threat to British power. On 4 June, before the Congress opened on 13 June, British Prime Minister Lord Beaconsfield had already concluded the Cyprus Convention , a secret alliance with the Ottomans against Russia in which Britain was allowed to occupy

3080-412: The Congress [REDACTED] Military Order of Maria Theresa The Military Order of Maria Theresa ( German : Militär-Maria-Theresien-Orden ; Hungarian : Katonai Mária Terézia-rend ; Czech : Vojenský řád Marie Terezie ; Polish : Wojskowy Order Marii Teresy ; Slovene : Vojaški red Marije Terezije ; Croatian : Vojni Red Marije Terezije ) was the highest military honour of

3157-478: The Congress of Berlin was considered to be a dismal failure. After finally defeating the Turks despite many past inconclusive Russo-Turkish wars, many Russians had expected "something colossal", a redrawing of the Balkan borders in support of Russian territorial ambitions. Instead, the victory resulted in an Austro-Hungarian gain on the Balkan front that was brought about by the rest of the European powers' preference for

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3234-474: The Habsburg military. Infantry formations were first set up in 1882 in each of the four main recruiting districts of Sarajevo , Banja Luka , Tuzla , and Mostar . Initially each was composed of one infantry company which was enlarged in subsequent years by a company each. By 1889 there were eight independent battalions. In 1892 three more battalions were established. In 1894 the military administration set up

3311-876: The Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy. United Kingdom [REDACTED] Russia [REDACTED] Germany [REDACTED] Austria-Hungary [REDACTED] France [REDACTED] Kingdom of Italy [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire [REDACTED] Romania [REDACTED] Greece [REDACTED] Serbia [REDACTED] Montenegro [REDACTED] Albanians in

3388-676: The Order Chapter. The Chapter then processed applications until its last meeting in 1931, when it was decided that further awards should not be made. Membership of the order was awarded a total of 1241 times. Alois Windisch and Friedrich Franek were the only two men who were awarded both the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa and the German Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross . On 4 November 1938, it

3465-572: The Russian delegates, what consolation remained to the Serbs. Jomini replied that it would have to be the thought that 'the situation was only temporary because within fifteen years at the latest we shall be forced to fight Austria.' 'Vain consolation!' comments Ristić. Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire were left unresolved. Bosnia-Herzegovina would also prove to be problematic for

3542-667: The Russo-Turkish War of 1812 but lost to Moldavia/Romania in 1856 after the Crimean War . The Bulgarian state that Russia had created by the Treaty of San Stefano was divided into the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia , both of which were given nominal autonomy, under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria was promised autonomy, and guarantees were made against Turkish interference, but they were largely ignored. Romania received Northern Dobruja as

3619-657: The administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina and secured the control of a corridor leading to the Aegean Sea . Both of these territories had to remain de jure part of the Ottoman Empire, but in 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus, whereas Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed by Austria in 1908. Thus, the Berlin Congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the Balkan Wars and (ultimately)

3696-493: The alliances in Europe before the First World War were thus noticeable. One reason that Bismarck was able to mediate the various tensions at the Congress of Berlin was his diplomatic persona. He sought peace and stability when international affairs did not pertain to Germany directly. Since he viewed the current situation in Europe as favourable for Germany, any conflicts between the major European powers that threatened

3773-739: The anniversary of the Battle of Monte Meletti in South Tyrol , only interrupted briefly during the Nazi period. Currently there is a Memorial plaque and a street named " Zweierbosniakengasse " ("2nd Bosniak Street") in Graz . The Italians and the Austrians have also erected a Memorial plaque to the role of the Bosnian soldiers in the biggest Italian military defeat of the war. An impassable ridge defended by Bosnian soldiers four kilometers north of Gorizia

3850-399: The distinctive knee-breeches of the Bosnian regiments were replaced with the universal model of the Austro-Hungarian infantry. In practice, supply shortages led to mixtures of field-grey, pike-grey and even peacetime blue clothing being worn for the remainder of the war. The fez remained in general use. Soldiers of the Albanian Legion initially wore a lambswool white qeleshe . However, this

3927-440: The great powers had resulted in the cession of Thessaly and the Arta Prefecture to Greece. Two states that didn't participate in the war, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, achieved great benefits from this Congress. The former was granted administrative control of Cyprus in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression. The latter obtained

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4004-399: The hereditary title of Baron ( Freiherr ). They were also entitled to a pension. Widows of the order's recipients were entitled to half of their spouse's pension during the remainder of their lives. The order ceased to be awarded by the Austrian emperor on the fall of the Habsburg dynasty in 1918, when its last sovereign, Charles I , transferred his powers concerning this honour to

4081-426: The lower classes, and was actively expressed through the Slav committees". Eventually, Russia sought and obtained Austria-Hungary's pledge of benevolent neutrality in the coming war, in return for ceding Bosnia Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary in the Budapest Convention of 1877 . act: The Berlin Congress in effect postponed resolution of the Bosnian question and left Bosnia and Herzegovina under Habsburg control. This

4158-419: The most important strategic section of the Balkans, was too multinational to be part of Bulgaria and permitted it to remain under the Ottoman Empire. Eastern Rumelia, which had its own large Turkish and Greek minorities, became an autonomous province under a Christian ruler, with its capital at Philippopolis . The remaining portions of the original "Greater Bulgaria" became the new state of Bulgaria. In Russia,

4235-410: The nominal rule of the Ottoman Empire. That sparked the Great Game , the massive British fear of the growing Russian influence in the Middle East . The new principality, including a very large portion of Macedonia as well as access to the Aegean Sea , could easily threaten the Dardanelles Straits , which separate the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea . The arrangement was not acceptable to

4312-443: The nominally German and Hungarian regiments of the K.u.K. Army. Inevitably this diversity led to a dilution of the effectiveness of individual units but the Bosnian-Herzegovian regiments retained a high reputation for loyalty and effectiveness until the very end of the war. In 1916 Austria-Hungary occupied Albania and about 5,000 Albanian men were recruited "to serve in a militia with Bosnian Muslim officers." This unit, known as

4389-433: The outbreak of war in 1914. In 1910 a pike-grey fez was adopted, although the red-brown model was retained for full dress and walking out. During the early months of World War I the pike-grey uniform proved too conspicuous against the dark forest backgrounds common on the Eastern Front. Greenish tinged "field-grey" uniforms of a similar shade to that of the Imperial German Army were accordingly issued. For reasons of economy

4466-406: The present day. The British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were therefore less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878: We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them." Though the Congress of Berlin constituted a harsh blow to Pan-Slavism , it, by no means, solved

4543-453: The question of the area. The Slavs in the Balkans were still mostly under non-Slavic rule, split between the rule of Austria-Hungary and the ailing Ottoman Empire. The Slavic states of the Balkans had learned that banding together as Slavs benefited them less than playing to the desires of a neighboring great power. That damaged the unity of the Balkan Slavs and encouraged competition between the fledgling Slav states. The underlying tensions of

4620-410: The region would continue to simmer for thirty years until they again exploded in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. In 1914, the assassination of Franz Ferdinand , the Austro-Hungarian heir, led to the First World War . In hindsight, the stated goal of maintaining peace and balance of powers in the Balkans obviously failed since the region would remain a source of conflict between the great powers well into

4697-451: The region, and balance the distinct interests of Britain, Russia and Austria-Hungary. He also wanted to avoid domination of the Balkans by Russia or the formation of a Greater Bulgaria , and to keep Constantinople in Ottoman hands. Finally Bismarck wanted to encourage the development of civil rights for Jews in the region. The affected territories were instead granted varying degrees of independence. Romania became fully independent, though

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4774-552: The representatives of the great powers. According to Henry Kissinger , the congress saw a shift in Bismarck's Realpolitik . Until then, as Germany had become too powerful for isolation, his policy was to maintain the League of the Three Emperors. Now that he could no longer rely on Russia's alliance, he began to form relations with as many potential enemies as possible. Bowing to Russia's pressure, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were all declared independent principalities. Russia recovered Southern Bessarabia , which it had annexed in

4851-472: The repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the Habsburgs . The British and the French governments were nervous about both the diminishing influence of the Ottoman Empire and the cultural expansion of Russia to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonise Egypt and Palestine . By the Treaty of San Stefano, the Russians, led by Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov , had managed to create in Bulgaria an autonomous principality, under

4928-433: The specifications contained in the Organic Law of 1868 and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Muslim subjects. The region of Bosnia-Herzegovina was handed over to the administration of Austria-Hungary, which also obtained the right to garrison the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , a small border region between Montenegro and Serbia. Bosnia and Herzegovina were put on the fast track to eventual annexation. Russia agreed that Macedonia ,

5005-427: The status quo was against German interests. Also, at the Congress of Berlin, "Germany could not look for any advantage from the crisis" that had occurred in the Balkans in 1875. Therefore, Bismarck claimed impartiality on behalf of Germany at the Congress, which enabled him to preside over the negotiations with a keen eye for foul play. Though most of Europe went into the Congress expecting a diplomatic show, much like

5082-405: The strategically-placed island of Cyprus . The agreement predetermined Beaconsfield's position during the Congress and led him to issue threats to unleash a war against Russia if it did not comply with Ottoman demands. Negotiations between Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury had already "ended on 6 June by Britain agreeing to all

5159-456: The two powers that were most invested in the fate of the Balkans, were allied with Germany in the conservative League of Three Emperors , which had been founded to preserve the monarchies of Continental Europe . The Congress of Berlin was thus mainly a dispute among supposed allies of Bismarck and his German Empire, the arbiter of the discussion, would thus have to choose before the end of the congress which of their allies to support. That decision

5236-405: The two provinces but encountered widespread resistance from the Muslim population of Bosnia. During a campaign that lasted until October 1878 the Austrian forces suffered casualties of 946 dead and 3,980 wounded. Although the two provinces constitutionally still belonged to the Ottoman Empire , the Austrian Imperial Administration began to build up a rudimentary administrative apparatus based on

5313-487: The war that the conference was supposed to resolve, and felt humiliated by the other great powers in their rejection of the San Stefano settlement. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece all received far less than they thought they deserved, especially Bulgaria which was left with less than half of the territory envisioned by the Treaty of San Stefano. Bismarck became hated by Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists , and later found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria-Hungary in

5390-432: The western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence". "High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired... [an] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective". On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert , were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878

5467-460: Was decided in Hungary to award further decorations of the order, citing legal continuity as long as Hungary's royal powers were exercised by the Regent Miklós Horthy ; the Regent performed the duties of the Order's Grand Master in Hungary. During World War II , only one person received the Knight's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa: Major General Kornél Oszlányi , commanding officer of the Royal Hungarian Army 's 9th Light Infantry Division, for

5544-426: Was established in 1903. Immediately prior to the outbreak of World War I the four Bosnian-Herzegovinian infantry regiments numbered 1 thru 4 containing 10,156 men (plus 21,327 reservists) in 12 battalions. The Field Rifles Battalion comprised 434 serving jägers, with 1,208 reservists. In January 1913 31.04% of NCOs and other ranks were Muslims, 39.12% were Serb Orthodox and 25.04% were Roman Catholic. The remainder were

5621-428: Was forced to give part of Bessarabia to Russia, and gained Northern Dobruja . Serbia and Montenegro were also granted full independence but lost territory, with Austria-Hungary occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar along with Bosnia and Herzegovina . Britain took possession of Cyprus . Of the territory that remained within the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria was made a semi-independent principality, Eastern Rumelia became

5698-590: Was later replaced with a field-grey fez donning a red-black-red cockade. For most of its existence the Bosnian units were equipped with the Austrian Gewehr Mannlicher M 1890 rifle. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire naturally brought about the disbandment of the k.u.k. army and hence the Bosnian-Herzegovinian troops. These went back to their home country, although several thousand Bosniaks saw their return delayed, having been captured as prisoners of war. In 1895 Eduard Wagnes wrote

5775-544: Was not to upset Germany's status on the international platform. He did not wish to disrupt the League of the Three Emperors by choosing between Russia and Austria as an ally. To maintain peace in Europe, Bismarck sought to convince other European diplomats that dividing up the Balkans would foster greater stability. During the process, Russia began to feel cheated despite eventually gaining independence for Bulgaria. Problems in

5852-547: Was the goal of Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count Gyula Andrássy . After the Bulgarian April Uprising in 1876 and the Russian victory in the Russo-Turkish War in 1877–1878 , Russia had liberated almost all of the Ottoman European possessions. The Ottomans recognised Montenegro , Romania and Serbia as independent, and the territories of all three of them were expanded. Russia created

5929-737: Was to have direct consequences on the future of European geopolitics. Ottoman brutality in the Serbian–Ottoman War and the violent suppression of the Herzegovina Uprising fomented political pressure within Russia, which saw itself as the protector of the Serbs, to act against the Ottoman Empire. David MacKenzie wrote that "sympathy for the Serbian Christians existed in Court circles, among nationalist diplomats, and in

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