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131-631: Alain Badiou ( / b ɑː ˈ d j uː / ; French: [alɛ̃ badju] ; born 17 January 1937) is a French philosopher, formerly chair of Philosophy at the École normale supérieure (ENS) and founder of the faculty of Philosophy of the Université de Paris VIII with Gilles Deleuze , Michel Foucault and Jean-François Lyotard . Badiou's work is heavily informed by philosophical applications of mathematics, in particular set theory and category theory. Badiou's "Being and Event" project considers

262-564: A Jewish state " and advocated for a secular Palestine in its place. This book generated a strong response, and the wrangling became a cause célèbre with articles going back and forth in the French newspaper Le Monde and in the cultural journal Les Temps modernes . Linguist and Lacanian philosopher Jean-Claude Milner , a past president of Collège international de philosophie , accused Badiou of anti-Semitism . Badiou forcefully rebutted this charge, declaring that his accusers often conflate

393-468: A transcendental empiricism ( empirisme transcendantal ), alluding to Kant. In Kant's transcendental idealism , experience only makes sense when organized by intuitions (namely, space and time) and concepts (such as causality). Assuming the content of these intuitions and concepts to be qualities of the world as it exists independently of human perceptual access, according to Kant, spawns seductive but senseless metaphysical beliefs (for example, extending

524-463: A universal history and posits the existence of a separate socius (the social body that takes credit for production ) for each mode of production : the earth for the tribe , the body of the despot for the empire , and capital for capitalism ." In his 1990 essay "Postscript on the Societies of Control" ("Post-scriptum sur les sociétés de contrôle"), Deleuze builds on Foucault's notion of

655-567: A beautiful philosophical concept you should just sit back and admire it. You should not question it." American philosopher Stanley Rosen objects to Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's eternal return . Vincent Descombes argues that Deleuze's account of a difference that is not derived from identity (in Nietzsche and Philosophy ) is incoherent. Slavoj Žižek states that the Deleuze of Anti-Oedipus ("arguably Deleuze's worst book"),

786-472: A blending of psychoanalysis, politics and set theory that they contend is preposterous. Similarly, philosopher and aesthetics writer Roger Scruton has questioned Badiou's grasp of the foundation of mathematics, writing in 2012: An example of a critique from a mathematician's point of view is the essay 'Badiou's Number: A Critique of Mathematics as Ontology' by Ricardo L. Nirenberg and David Nirenberg , which takes issue in particular with Badiou's matheme of

917-527: A body of work that philosophy is currently incapable of incorporating), among others. The major propositions of Badiou's philosophy all find their basis in Being and Event , in which he continues his attempt (which he began in Théorie du sujet ) to reconcile a notion of the subject with ontology, and in particular post-structuralist and constructivist ontologies. A frequent criticism of post-structuralist work

1048-475: A book entitled La Grandeur de Marx ( The Greatness of Marx ), and left behind two chapters of an unfinished project entitled Ensembles and Multiplicities (these chapters have been published as the essays "Immanence: A Life" and "The Actual and the Virtual"). He is buried in the cemetery of the village of Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat . Deleuze's works fall into two groups: on the one hand, monographs interpreting

1179-486: A contemporary European philosopher his work is increasingly being taken up by militants in countries like India, the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa. In 2014–15, Badiou had the role of Honorary President at The Global Center for Advanced Studies . Badiou makes repeated use of several concepts throughout his philosophy, which he discerns from close readings of the philosophical literature from

1310-410: A differential, Evental ontology lead both thinkers into an extended critique of the representation characteristic to Platonic, Aristotelian, and Cartesian thought; as Joe Hughes states: " Difference and Repetition is a detective novel. It tells the story of what some readers of Deleuze might consider a horrendous crime [...]: the birth of representation." Heidegger formed his critiques most decisively in

1441-406: A domination – in the terms of mathematical ontology – as a set of conditions such that any condition outside the domination is dominated by at least one term inside the domination. One does not necessarily need to refer to constructible language to conceive of a 'set of dominations', which he refers to as the indiscernible set, or the generic set. It is therefore, he continues, possible to think beyond

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1572-436: A member of the editorial board of Cahiers pour l'Analyse . By then he "already had a solid grounding in mathematics and logic (along with Lacanian theory )", and his own two contributions to the pages of Cahiers "anticipate many of the distinctive concerns of his later philosophy". The student uprisings of May 1968 reinforced Badiou's commitment to the far Left, and he participated in increasingly militant groups, such as

1703-402: A metaphysician of difference rather than a reactionary mystic contributed greatly to the plausibility and popularity of "left-wing Nietzscheanism" as an intellectual stance. His books Difference and Repetition (1968) and The Logic of Sense (1969) led Michel Foucault to declare that "one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian." (Deleuze, for his part, said Foucault's comment

1834-507: A mostly unproblematic business. Truth may be hard to discover—it may require a life of pure theorizing, or rigorous computation, or systematic doubt—but thinking is able, at least in principle, to correctly grasp facts, forms, ideas, etc. It may be practically impossible to attain a God's-eye, neutral point of view , but that is the ideal to approximate: a disinterested pursuit that results in a determinate, fixed truth; an orderly extension of common sense. Deleuze rejects this view as papering over

1965-491: A nation-state with religious preference and will label as anti-Semitic anyone who objects to this tendency: "It is wholly intolerable to be accused of anti-Semitism by anyone for the sole reason that, from the fact of the extermination , one does not conclude as to the predicate "Jew" and its religious and communitarian dimension that it receive some singular valorization – a transcendent annunciation! – nor that Israeli exactions , whose colonial nature

2096-552: A neighbouring institution in the US, Canada, Latin America, Asia or Europe in order to develop their language skills and cultural understanding. Alternatively, students also have the possibility to teach French in a high school abroad or to complete an internship. Gilles Deleuze Gilles Louis René Deleuze ( / d ə ˈ l uː z / də- LOOZ ; French: [ʒil dəløz] ; 18 January 1925 – 4 November 1995)

2227-592: A particular kind of reactionary politics, and identifies him with an attempt to kill off that which is officially already dead: the emancipatory project that, defiantly, Badiou still calls communism. Badiou claims that Sarkozy’s rise is the return of a kind of ‘Pétainist’ mass subjectivity first instigated by the Vichy regime’s collaboration with the Nazis in World War II; the enemy that is being acquiesced to now, though,

2358-411: A prohibition (cf. p. 190 in Being and Event ). (This axiom states that every non-empty set A contains an element y that is disjoint from A.) Badiou's philosophy draws two major implications from this prohibition. Firstly, it secures the inexistence of the 'one': there cannot be a grand overarching set, and thus it is fallacious to conceive of a grand cosmos, a whole Nature, or a Being of God. Badiou

2489-651: A return of communism as a political force. Badiou is the son of the mathematician Raymond Badiou (1905–1996), who was a working member of the Resistance in France during World War II . Alain Badiou was a student at the Lycée Louis-Le-Grand and then the École Normale Supérieure (1955–1960). In 1960, he wrote his diplôme d'études supérieures  [ fr ] (roughly equivalent to an MA thesis) on Spinoza for Georges Canguilhem (the topic

2620-817: A select number of subjects such as Law and Psychology. Paris-VIII is well-connected and has over 250 partnerships with universities around the world. They include the UC Berkeley , the Beijing Film Academy , Boston University , the Free University of Berlin, the Humboldt University of Berlin, the University of Vienna as well as since 2016 the University of Rojava . Students are encouraged to spend one or two semesters at

2751-442: A single, correct interpretation, but is instead to present a philosopher's attempt to grapple with the problematic nature of reality. "Philosophers introduce new concepts, they explain them, but they don't tell us, not completely anyway, the problems to which those concepts are a response. [...] The history of philosophy, rather than repeating what a philosopher says, has to say what he must have taken for granted, what he didn't say but

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2882-537: A theoretical embodiment of the anarchic spirit of May 1968 . In 1994 and 1995, L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze , an eight-hour series of interviews between Deleuze and Claire Parnet , aired on France's Arte Channel. In the 1980s and 1990s, almost all of Deleuze's books were translated into English. Deleuze's work is frequently cited in English-speaking academia (in 2007, e.g., he was the 11th most frequently cited author in English-speaking publications in

3013-414: A thinking of the compossibility of the several truth procedures, whether this is undertaken through the investigation of the intersections between distinct truth procedures (the intersection of art and love in the novel, for instance), or whether this is undertaken through the more traditionally philosophical work of addressing categories like truth or the subject (concepts that are, as concepts, external to

3144-591: A university service building in France using the Energiesprong method. This initiative aims to make the building fully energy self-sufficient for all its uses, with a 20-year performance guarantee. The university offers over a hundred undergraduate, graduate and diploma courses. It is particularly well known for its political science program as it is the only public university in France to offer this subject at undergraduate level. The University of Paris-VIII also offers some distance-learning opportunities for

3275-441: A young age, developed tuberculosis in 1968 and underwent lung removal. He suffered increasingly severe respiratory symptoms for the rest of his life. In the last years of his life, simple tasks such as writing required laborious effort. Overwhelmed by his respiratory problems, he died by suicide on 4 November 1995, throwing himself from the window of his apartment. Before his death, Deleuze had announced his intention to write

3406-500: Is a founding member (along with Natacha Michel and Sylvain Lazarus ) of the militant French political organisation L'Organisation Politique, which was active from 1985 until it disbanded in 2007. It called itself a post-party organization concerned with direct popular intervention in a wide range of issues (including immigration, labor, and housing). In addition to numerous writings and interventions, L'Organisation Politique highlighted

3537-559: Is a play of forces; in Anti-Oedipus (1972), a " body without organs "; in What is Philosophy? (1991), a " plane of immanence " or "chaosmos". Deleuze's unusual metaphysics entails an equally atypical epistemology , or what he calls a transformation of "the image of thought". According to Deleuze, the traditional image of thought, found in philosophers such as Aristotle , René Descartes , and Edmund Husserl , misconceives thinking as

3668-416: Is a specifically philosophical category. While philosophy's several conditions are, on their own terms, "truth procedures" (i.e., they produce truths as they are pursued), it is only philosophy that can speak of the several truth procedures as truth procedures. (The lover, for instance, does not think of her love as a question of truth, but simply and rightly as a question of love. Only the philosopher sees in

3799-483: Is acceptable ontologically, it is unacceptable, Badiou holds, philosophically. Set theory mathematics has consequently 'pragmatically abandoned' an area which philosophy cannot. And so, Badiou argues, there is therefore only one possibility remaining: that ontology can say nothing about the event. Several critics have questioned Badiou's use of mathematics. Mathematician Alan Sokal and physicist Jean Bricmont write that Badiou proposes, with seemingly "utter seriousness,"

3930-545: Is constantly outside the categorical grasp fond of formal, natural, and human sciences. For Heidegger, this is the Earth in the fourfold, something which has as one of its traits the behaviour of "resisting articulation," what he characterizes as a "strife"; for Deleuze, a similar example can be spotted in the paradox of regress, or of indefinite proliferation in the Logic of Sense . In the 1960s, Deleuze's portrayal of Nietzsche as

4061-585: Is creativity. "Herein, perhaps, lies the secret: to bring into existence and not to judge. If it is so disgusting to judge, it is not because everything is of equal value, but on the contrary, because what has value can be made or distinguished only by defying judgment. What expert judgment, in art, could ever bear on the work to come?" Deleuze's studies of individual philosophers and artists are purposely heterodox. Deleuze once famously described his method of interpreting philosophers as "buggery ( enculage )", as sneaking behind an author and producing an offspring which

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4192-408: Is crucial for Badiou is that the structural form of the count-as-one, which makes multiplicities thinkable, implies (somehow or other) that the proper name of being does not belong to an element as such (an original 'one'), but rather the void set (written Ø), the set to which nothing (not even the void set itself) belongs. It may help to understand the concept 'count-as-one' if it is associated with

4323-455: Is decided it 'becomes true'), but rather argues that the recasting of a truth comes prior to its veracity or verifiability. As he says of Galileo (p. 401): While Badiou is keen to reject an equivalence between politics and philosophy, he correlates nonetheless his political activism and skepticism toward the parliamentary-democratic process with his philosophy, based around singular, situated truths, and potential revolutions. Alain Badiou

4454-581: Is devoted to the reading of other philosophers: the Stoics , Leibniz , Hume , Kant , Nietzsche , Spinoza , and Bergson . A. W. Moore , citing Bernard Williams 's criteria for a great thinker, ranks Deleuze among the "greatest philosophers". Although he once characterized himself as a "pure metaphysician ", his work has influenced a variety of disciplines across the humanities, including philosophy, art, and literary theory, as well as movements such as post-structuralism and postmodernism . Gilles Deleuze

4585-455: Is difference, and difference "differentiates by way of events." In contrast to this, however, Jussi Backman argues that, for Heidegger, being is united only insofar as it consists of and is difference, or rather as the movement of difference, not too dissimilar to Deleuze's later claims: "...the unity and univocity of being (in the sense of being), its 'selfsameness,' paradoxically consists exclusively in difference." This mutual apprehension of

4716-492: Is difference, and time is repetition)." Bahoh continues in saying that: "...then Beiträge could be read as Difference and Repetition 's unknowing and anachronistic doppelgänger." Deleuze and Heidegger's philosophy is considered to converge on the topics of Difference and the Event. Where, for Heidegger, an evental being is constituted in part by difference as "...an essential dimension of the concept of event"; for Deleuze, being

4847-536: Is dominated by the conditions which don't possess the property that makes it discernible as a set. (The property 'one' is always dominated by 'not one'.) These sets are, in line with constructible ontology, relative to one's being-in-the-world and one's being in language (where sets and concepts, such as the concept 'humanity', get their names). However, he continues, the dominations themselves are, whilst being relative concepts, not necessarily intrinsic to language and constructible thought; rather one can axiomatically define

4978-403: Is faithful to what he has glimpsed, can then introduce the truth by naming it into worldly situations. For Badiou, it is by positioning oneself to the truth of an event that a human animal becomes a subject ; subjectivity is not an inherent human trait. According to a process or procedure that subsequently unfolds only if those who subject themselves to the glimpsed truth continue to be faithful in

5109-515: Is given "...in terms of being or becoming as difference and repetition, together with genetic processes of individuation whereby beings come to exist and pass out of existence." Time and space, for both thinkers, is also constituted in nearly identical ways. Time-space in the Beiträge and the three syntheses in Difference and Repetition both apprehend time as grounded in difference, whilst

5240-401: Is important to note, becomes a subject through this process) can potentially witness an event: love, science, politics and art. By enacting fidelity to the event within these four domains one performs a 'generic procedure', which in its undecidability is necessarily experimental, and one potentially recasts the situation in which being takes place. Through this maintenance of fidelity, truth has

5371-483: Is impossible. 'Terminology' implies precisely difference between terms (thus multiplicity) as the condition for meaning. The idea of a term without meaning is incoherent, the count-as-one is a structural effect or a situational operation ; it is not an event of 'truth'. Multiples which are 'composed' or 'consistent' are count-effects. 'Inconsistent multiplicity' [ meaning? ] is [somehow or other] 'the presentation of presentation.' Badiou's use of set theory in this manner

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5502-430: Is it?", Deleuze proposes that inquiries should be functional or practical: "what does it do?" or "how does it work?" In ethics and politics Deleuze again echoes Spinoza, albeit in a sharply Nietzschean key. Following his rejection of any metaphysics based on identity, Deleuze criticizes the notion of an individual as an arresting or halting of differentiation (as the etymology of the word "individual" suggests ). Guided by

5633-447: Is no one substance, only an always-differentiating process , an origami cosmos, always folding, unfolding, refolding. Deleuze summarizes this ontology in the paradoxical formula " pluralism = monism ". Difference and Repetition (1968) is Deleuze's most sustained and systematic attempt to work out the details of such a metaphysics, but his other works develop similar ideas. In Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962), for example, reality

5764-403: Is nonetheless present in what he did say." Likewise, rather than seeing philosophy as a timeless pursuit of truth, reason, or universals, Deleuze defines philosophy as the creation of concepts . For Deleuze, concepts are not identity conditions or propositions, but metaphysical constructions that define a range of thinking, such as Plato's ideas , Descartes's cogito , or Kant's doctrine of

5895-467: Is not an existential positive proposition, but other multiples whose properties (i.e., structural relations) validate its presentation. The structure of being thus secures the regime of the count-as-one. So if one is to think of a set – for instance, the set of people, or humanity – as counting as one, the multiple elements which belong to that set are secured as one consistent concept (humanity), but only in terms of what does not belong to that set. What

6026-470: Is not just illustrative or heuristic . Badiou uses the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory to identify the relationship of being to history, Nature, the State, and God. Most significantly this use means that (as with set theory) there is a strict prohibition on self-belonging; a set cannot contain or belong to itself. This results from the axiom of foundation – or the axiom of regularity – which enacts such

6157-445: Is not the differences which are and must be: it is being which is Difference, in the sense that it is said of difference. Moreover, it is not we who are univocal in a Being which is not; it is we and our individuality which remains equivocal in and for a univocal Being." Here Deleuze at once echoes and inverts Spinoza, who maintained that everything that exists is a modification of the one substance , God or Nature . For Deleuze, there

6288-642: Is not, in other words, in its internal difference ." Like Kant, Deleuze considers traditional notions of space and time as unifying forms imposed by the subject . He, therefore, concludes that pure difference is non-spatiotemporal; it is an idea, what Deleuze calls " the virtual ". (The coinage refers to Proust's definition of what is constant in both the past and the present: "real without being actual, ideal without being abstract.") While Deleuze's virtual ideas superficially resemble Plato 's forms and Kant's ideas of pure reason, they are not originals or models, nor do they transcend possible experience; instead they are

6419-588: Is of course capital.” Universit%C3%A9 de Paris VIII It is based on several campuses, mainly in Saint-Denis , as well as in Aubervilliers and the north of Paris on the Condorcet Campus , which it has initiated with nine other universities and public institutions since 2008 and which will be inaugurated in 2019. It is one of the thirteen successors of the University of Paris, and

6550-549: Is patent and banal, be specially tolerated. I propose that nobody any longer accept, publicly or privately, this type of political blackmail." Badiou characterizes the state of Israel as "neither more nor less impure than all states", but objects to "its exclusive identitarian claim to be a Jewish state, and the way it draws incessant privileges from this claim, especially when it comes to trampling underfoot what serves us as international law." For example, he continues, "The Islamic states are certainly no more progressive as models than

6681-450: Is quite beside the point to say that Bacon "gets Velasquez wrong". Similar considerations apply, in Deleuze's view, to his own uses of mathematical and scientific terms, pace critics such as Alan Sokal : "I'm not saying that Resnais and Prigogine , or Godard and Thom , are doing the same thing. I'm pointing out, rather, that there are remarkable similarities between scientific creators of functions and cinematic creators of images. And

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6812-419: Is quite rational if you accept sin, the immaculate conception, and the incarnation. Reason is always a region carved out of the irrational—not sheltered from the irrational at all, but traversed by it and only defined by a particular kind of relationship among irrational factors. Underneath all reason lies delirium, and drift." The Logic of Sense , published in 1969, is one of Deleuze's most peculiar works in

6943-420: Is recognizably his, yet also monstrous and different. The various monographs thus are not attempts to present what Nietzsche or Spinoza strictly intended, but re-stagings of their ideas in different and unexpected ways. Deleuze's peculiar readings aim to enact the creativity he believes is the acme of philosophical practice. A parallel in painting Deleuze points to is Francis Bacon's Study after Velázquez —it

7074-616: Is that a truth's invariance makes it genuinely indiscernible: because a truth is everywhere and always the case, it passes unnoticed unless there is a rupture in the laws of being and appearance, during which the truth in question becomes, but only for a passing moment, discernible. Such a rupture is what Badiou calls an event, according to a theory originally worked out in Being and Event and fleshed out in important ways in Logics of Worlds . The individual who chances to witness such an event, if he

7205-734: Is that it prohibits, through its fixation on semiotics and language, any notion of a subject. Badiou's work is, by his own admission, an attempt to break out of contemporary philosophy's fixation upon language, which he sees almost as a straitjacket. This effort leads him, in Being and Event , to combine rigorous mathematical formulae with his readings of poets such as Mallarmé and Hölderlin and religious thinkers such as Pascal . His philosophy draws upon both 'analytical' and 'continental' traditions. In Badiou's own opinion, this combination places him awkwardly relative to his contemporaries, meaning that his work had been only slowly taken up. Being and Event offers an example of this slow uptake, in fact: it

7336-443: Is therefore – against Georg Cantor , from whom he draws heavily – staunchly atheist . However, secondly, this prohibition prompts him to introduce the event. Because, according to Badiou, the axiom of foundation 'founds' all sets in the void, it ties all being to the historico-social situation of the multiplicities of de-centred sets – thereby effacing the positivity of subjective action, or an entirely 'new' occurrence. And whilst this

7467-466: Is to fully express one's power, to go to the limits of one's potential, rather than to judge what exists by non-empirical, transcendent standards. Modern society still suppresses difference and alienates people from what they can do. To affirm reality, which is a flux of change and difference, established identities must be overturned and so become all that they can become—though exactly what cannot be known in advance. The pinnacle of Deleuzean practice, then,

7598-707: Is to show that his categories of truth are useful for any type of philosophical critique. Therefore, he uses them to interrogate art and history as well as ontology and scientific discovery. Johannes Thumfart argues that Badiou's philosophy can be regarded as a contemporary reinterpretation of Platonism . According to Badiou, philosophy is suspended from four conditions (art, love, politics, and science), each of them fully independent "truth procedures." (For Badiou's notion of truth procedures, see below.) Badiou consistently maintains throughout his work (but most systematically in Manifesto for Philosophy ) that philosophy must avoid

7729-406: Is univocal , i.e., that all of its senses are affirmed in one voice. Deleuze borrows the doctrine of ontological univocity from the medieval philosopher John Duns Scotus . In medieval disputes over the nature of God, many eminent theologians and philosophers (such as Thomas Aquinas ) held that when one says that "God is good", God's goodness is only analogous to human goodness. Scotus argued to

7860-536: The Greek tradition of philosophy has faced and never satisfactorily dealt with is that while beings themselves are plural, and thought in terms of multiplicity, being itself is thought to be singular; that is, it is thought in terms of the one. He proposes as the solution to this impasse the following declaration: that the One is not ( l'Un n'est pas ). This is why Badiou accords set theory (the axioms of which he refers to as

7991-739: The Union des communistes de France marxiste-léniniste (UCFml). To quote Badiou himself, the UCFml is "the Maoist organization established in late 1969 by Natacha Michel , Sylvain Lazarus , myself and a fair number of young people". During this time, Badiou joined the faculty of the newly founded University of Paris VIII (Vincennes-Saint Denis) which was a bastion of counter-cultural thought. There he engaged in fierce intellectual debates with fellow professors Gilles Deleuze and Jean-François Lyotard , whose philosophical works he considered unhealthy deviations from

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8122-518: The University of Paris VIII (Vincennes-Saint Denis) in 1969. Badiou was politically active very early on, and was one of the founding members of the Unified Socialist Party (PSU). The PSU was particularly active in the struggle for the decolonization of Algeria. He wrote his first novel, Almagestes , in 1964. In 1967 he joined a study group organized by Louis Althusser , became increasingly influenced by Jacques Lacan and became

8253-417: The agrégation in philosophy in 1948, and taught at various lycées (Amiens, Orléans, Louis le Grand ) until 1957, when he took up a position at the University of Paris. In 1953, he published his first monograph, Empiricism and Subjectivity , on David Hume . This monograph was based on his 1947 DES ( diplôme d'études supérieures  [ fr ] ) thesis, roughly equivalent to an M.A. thesis, which

8384-508: The conditions of sets. These conditions are thought of in terms of domination, a domination being that which defines a set. (If one takes, in binary language, the set with the condition 'items marked only with ones', any item marked with zero negates the property of the set. The condition which has only ones is thus dominated by any condition which has zeros in it [cf. pp. 367–371 in Being and Event ].) Badiou reasons using these conditions that every discernible (nameable or constructible) set

8515-488: The naturalistic ethics of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze instead seeks to understand individuals and their moralities as products of the organization of pre-individual desires and powers. In the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia , Anti-Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980), Deleuze and Guattari describe history as a congealing and regimentation of " desiring-production " (a concept combining features of Freudian drives and Marxist labor ) into

8646-407: The "ideas of the multiple") such stature, and refers to mathematics as the very place of ontology: Only set theory allows one to conceive a 'pure doctrine of the multiple'. Set theory does not operate in terms of definite individual elements in groupings but only functions insofar as what belongs to a set is of the same relation as that set (that is, another set too). What individuates a set, therefore,

8777-437: The "political" Deleuze under the "'bad' influence" of Guattari, ends up, despite protestations to the contrary, as "the ideologist of late capitalism". Peter Hallward argues that Deleuze's insistence that being is necessarily creative and always-differentiating entails that his philosophy can offer no insight into, and is supremely indifferent to, the material conditions of existence. Thus Hallward claims that Deleuze's thought

8908-700: The Althusserian program of a scientific Marxism . In the 1980s, as both Althusserian structural Marxism and Lacanian psychoanalysis went into decline (after Lacan died and Althusser was committed to a psychiatric hospital), Badiou published more technical and abstract philosophical works, such as Théorie du sujet (1982), and his magnum opus, Being and Event (1988). Nonetheless, Badiou has never renounced Althusser or Lacan, and sympathetic references to Marxism and psychoanalysis are not uncommon in his more recent works (most notably Petit panthéon portatif / Pocket Pantheon ). He took up his current position at

9039-818: The Centre International d'Etude de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine, alongside Yves Duroux and his former student Quentin Meillassoux . Badiou has also enjoyed success as a dramatist with plays such as Ahmed le Subtil . In the last decade, an increasing number of Badiou's works have been translated into English, such as Ethics , Deleuze , Manifesto for Philosophy , Metapolitics , and Being and Event . Short pieces by Badiou have likewise appeared in American and English periodicals, such as Lacanian Ink , New Left Review , Radical Philosophy , Cosmos and History and Parrhesia . Unusually for

9170-685: The Dean of the University of Paris , Raymond Las Vergnas, proposed the creation of a new university to Edgar Faure, the Minister of National Education. Las Vergnas was accompanied by professors Pierre Dommergues, Bernard Cassen and a young female lecturer in English, Hélène Cixous . Two days later, Cixous sent a telegram to her friend Jacques Derrida , asking him to be his advisor. Through Derrida, Cixous recruited Georges Canguilhem and Roland Barthes , who became official advisors. As soon as it opened,

9301-659: The ENS in 1999. He is also associated with a number of other institutions, such as the Collège International de Philosophie . He was a member of L'Organisation Politique which, as mentioned above, he founded in 1985 with some comrades from the Maoist UCFml. This organization disbanded in 2007, according to the French Misplaced Pages article (linked to in the previous sentence). In 2002, he was a co-founder of

9432-423: The Event in Being and Event , which has already been alluded to in respect of the 'axiom of foundation' above. Nirenberg and Nirenberg write: Badiou again turns here to mathematics and set theory – Badiou's language of ontology – to study the possibility of an indiscernible element existing extrinsically to the situation of ontology. He employs the strategy of the mathematician Paul J. Cohen , using what are called

9563-597: The University of Vincennes became the venue for a continuation of 1968, being occupied almost immediately by student radicals , and being the scene of violent confrontations with the police. One incident, in early 1972, involved a janitors' strike. The radicalized janitors invaded classrooms, accused the professors of being scabs, and demanded solidarity. Meanwhile, there was so much radical leafleting, some university hallways were clogged with ankle-deep crumpled leaflets. It became known for its radical philosophy department, with many faculty considering themselves communist which

9694-421: The ancient materialist concept of "aesthesis". His view of the link between philosophy and art is tied into the motif of pedagogy, which he claims functions so as to "arrange the forms of knowledge in a way that some truth may come to pierce a hole in them". He develops these ideas with examples from the prose of Samuel Beckett and the poetry of Stéphane Mallarmé and Fernando Pessoa (who he argues has developed

9825-404: The arts create novel qualitative combinations of sensation and feeling (what Deleuze calls " percepts " and " affects "), and the sciences create quantitative theories based on fixed points of reference such as the speed of light or absolute zero (which Deleuze calls "functives"). According to Deleuze, none of these disciplines enjoy primacy over the others: they are different ways of organizing

9956-480: The classical period. His own method cannot be fully understood if it is not situated within the tradition of French academic philosophy. Badiou's work engages a detailed decrypting of texts, in line with philosophers such as Foucault , Deleuze , Balibar , Bourdieu , Derrida , Bouveresse and Engel , all of whom he studied with at the Ecole Normale Superieure. One of the aims of his thought

10087-459: The concept of 'terming': a multiple is not one, but it is referred to with 'multiple': one word. To count a set as one is to mention that set. How the being of terms such as 'multiple' does not contradict the non-being of the one can be understood by considering the multiple nature of terminology: for there to be a term without there also being a system of terminology, within which the difference between terms gives context and meaning to any one term,

10218-467: The concept of causality beyond possible experience results in unverifiable speculation about a first cause). Deleuze inverts the Kantian arrangement: experience exceeds human concepts by presenting novelty, and this raw experience of difference actualizes an idea, unfettered by prior categories, forcing the invention of new ways of thinking (see Epistemology ). Simultaneously, Deleuze claims that being

10349-475: The concept of the fourfold [ German: das Geviert ], a non-metaphysical grounding for the thing (as opposed to "object") as "ungrounded, mediated, meaningful, and shared" united in an "event of appropriation" [ Ereignis ]. This evental ontology continues in Identität und Differenz , where the fundamental concept expressed in Difference and Repetition , of dethroning the primacy of identity, can be seen throughout

10480-451: The concepts of being , truth , event and the subject defined by a rejection of linguistic relativism seen as typical of postwar French thought. Unlike his peers, Badiou openly believes in the idea of universalism and truth. His work is notable for his widespread applications of various conceptions of indifference. Badiou has been involved in a number of political organisations, and regularly comments on political events. Badiou argues for

10611-402: The conditions of actual experience, the internal difference in itself. "The concept they [the conditions] form is identical to its object." A Deleuzean idea or concept of difference is therefore not a wraith-like abstraction of an experienced thing, it is a real system of differential relations that creates actual spaces, times, and sensations. Thus, Deleuze at times refers to his philosophy as

10742-486: The contrary that when one says that "God is good", the goodness in question is exactly the same sort of goodness that is meant when one says "Jane is good". That is, God only differs from humans in degree, and properties such as goodness , power , reason , and so forth are univocally applied, regardless of whether one is talking about God, a person, or a flea. Deleuze adapts the doctrine of univocity to claim that being is, univocally, difference. "With univocity, however, it

10873-748: The contrary, Deleuze claims that all identities are effects of difference. Identities are neither logically nor metaphysically prior to difference, Deleuze argues, "given that there exist differences of nature between things of the same genus." That is, not only are no two things ever the same, the categories used to identify individuals in the first place derive from differences. Apparent identities such as "X" are composed of endless series of differences, where "X" = "the difference between x and x ′ {\displaystyle ^{\prime }} ", and "x ′ {\displaystyle ^{\prime }} " = "the difference between...", and so forth. Difference, in other words, goes all

11004-473: The controversy went beyond antisemitism, striking at the heart of what it means to be French: “[Badiou] sees Sarkozy as the embodiment of a strain of moral cowardice in French politics, in which the defining moment was the installation of Marshal Pétain as head of the pro-Nazi collaborationist government. For Badiou, Sarkozy is a symbol of "transcendent Pétainism ".” Mark Fisher was impressed with Badiou’s efforts: “The book treats Sarkozy as an emblem of

11135-448: The day, which Badiou terms "democratic materialism," denies the existence of truth and only recognizes " bodies " and " languages ." Badiou proposes a turn towards the " materialist dialectic ," which recognizes that there are only bodies and languages, except there are also truths. In Handbook of Inaesthetics Badiou both draws on the original Greek meaning and the later Kantian concept of "aesthesis" as "material perception" and coins

11266-444: The distinction between the time-space of the world [Welt] and the time-space as the eventual production of such a time-space is mirrored by Deleuze's categorization between the temporality of what is actual and temporality of the virtual in the first and the second/third syntheses respectively. Another parallel can be found in their utilization of so-called "generative paradoxes," or rather problems whose fundamental problematic element

11397-555: The dreadful institution of two barbed-wire states. The solution is the creation of a secular and democratic Palestine...which would show that it is perfectly possible to create a place in these lands where, from a political point of view and regardless of the apolitical continuity of customs, there is 'neither Arab nor Jew.' This will undoubtedly demand a regional Mandela ." Alain Badiou gained notoriety in 2007 with his pamphlet The Meaning of Sarkozy ( De quoi Sarkozy est-il le nom? ), which quickly sold 60,000 copies, whereas for 40 years

11528-463: The fact that this state presents itself as a Jewish state is directly contradictory." Badiou is optimistic that ongoing political problems can be resolved by de-emphasizing the communitarian religious dimension: "The signifier 'Palestinian' or 'Arab' should not be glorified any more than is permitted for the signifier 'Jew.' As a result, the legitimate solution to the Middle East conflict is not

11659-569: The faculties. A philosophical concept "posits itself and its object at the same time as it is created." In Deleuze's view, then, philosophy more closely resembles practical or artistic production than it does an adjunct to a definitive scientific description of a pre-existing world (as in the tradition of John Locke or Willard Van Orman Quine ). In his later work (from roughly 1981 onward), Deleuze sharply distinguishes art, philosophy, and science as three distinct disciplines, each relating to reality in different ways. While philosophy creates concepts,

11790-587: The field of epistemology. Michel Foucault , in his essay "Theatrum Philosophicum" about the book, attributed this to how he begins with his metaphysics but approaches it through language and truth; the book is focused on "the simple condition that instead of denouncing metaphysics as the neglect of being, we force it to speak of extrabeing". In it, he refers to epistemological paradoxes : in the first series, as he analyzes Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland , he remarks that "the personal self requires God and

11921-486: The humanities, between Freud and Kant). In the English-speaking academy, Deleuze's work is typically classified as continental philosophy . However, some French and some Anglophone philosophers criticised Deleuze's work. According to Pascal Engel , Deleuze's metaphilosophical approach makes it impossible to reasonably disagree with a philosophical system, and so destroys meaning, truth, and philosophy itself. Engel summarizes Deleuze's metaphilosophy thus: "When faced with

12052-522: The importance of developing political prescriptions concerning undocumented migrants ( les sans papiers ), stressing that they must be conceived primarily as workers and not immigrants. In 2005, a controversy in Parisian intellectual life erupted after the publication of Badiou's Circonstances 3: Portées du mot 'juif' ("The Uses of the Word 'Jew'"). The author criticised Israel's " identitarian claim to be

12183-489: The individual truth procedures, though they are functionally operative in the truth procedures themselves). For Badiou, when philosophy addresses the four truth procedures in a genuinely philosophical manner, rather than through a suturing abandonment of philosophy as such, it speaks of them with a theoretical terminology that marks its philosophical character: "inaesthetics" rather than art; metapolitics rather than politics; ontology rather than science; etc. Truth , for Badiou,

12314-489: The lives of individuals considered as "masses, samples, data, markets, or 'banks'." The mechanisms of modern societies of control are described as continuous, following and tracking individuals throughout their existence via transaction records, mobile location tracking, and other personally identifiable information . But how does Deleuze square his pessimistic diagnoses with his ethical naturalism? Deleuze claims that standards of value are internal or immanent : to live well

12445-441: The metaphysical flux, "separate melodic lines in constant interplay with one another." For example, Deleuze does not treat cinema as an art representing an external reality, but as an ontological practice that creates different ways of organizing movement and time. Philosophy, science, and art are equally, and essentially, creative and practical. Hence, instead of asking traditional questions of identity such as "is it true?" or "what

12576-608: The metaphysical flux, instead claiming that genuine thinking is a violent confrontation with reality, an involuntary rupture of established categories. Truth changes thought; it alters what people think is possible. By setting aside the assumption that thinking has a natural ability to recognize the truth, Deleuze says, people attain a "thought without image", a thought always determined by problems rather than solving them. "All this, however, presupposes codes or axioms which do not result by chance, but which do not have an intrinsic rationality either. It's just like theology: everything about it

12707-445: The modern individual (typically neurotic and repressed), the nation-state (a society of continuous control), and capitalism (an anarchy domesticated into infantilizing commodification). Deleuze, following Karl Marx , welcomes capitalism's destruction of traditional social hierarchies as liberating but inveighs against its homogenization of all values to the aims of the market. The first part of Capitalism and Schizophrenia undertakes

12838-509: The new experimental institution was named Centre Universitaire Expérimental de Vincennes (CUEV) in Vincennes . In 1971, it gained full university status, thus allowing it to award its own degrees, and renamed University of Vincennes , then University of Paris-VIII . Since moving to Saint-Denis in 1980, the university has become a major teaching and research centre for humanities in the Île-de-France region. On Monday 5th of August 1968,

12969-555: The ongoing May 68 demonstrations; he later published his two dissertations under the titles Difference and Repetition (supervised by Gandillac) and Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (supervised by Alquié). In 1969, he was appointed to the University of Paris VIII at Vincennes/St. Denis, an experimental school organized to implement educational reform. This new university drew a number of well-known academics, including Foucault (who suggested Deleuze's hiring) and

13100-449: The phrase "inaesthetic" to refer to a concept of artistic creation that denies "the reflection/object relation" yet, at the same time, in reaction against the idea of mimesis , or poetic reflection of "nature", he affirms that art is "immanent" and "singular". Art is immanent in the sense that its truth is given in its immediacy in a given work of art, and singular in that its truth is found in art and art alone – hence reviving

13231-447: The potentiality to emerge. In line with his concept of the event, Badiou maintains, politics is not about politicians, but activism based on the present situation and the evental [ sic ] (his translators' neologism) rupture. So too does love have this characteristic of becoming anew . Even in science the guesswork that marks the event is prominent. He vigorously rejects the tag of ' decisionist ' (the idea that once something

13362-581: The psychoanalyst Félix Guattari . Deleuze taught at Paris VIII until his retirement in 1987. Deleuze's outlook on life was sympathetic to transcendental ideas, "nature as god" ethics, and the monist experience. Some of the important ideas he advocated for and found inspiration in include his personally coined expression pluralism = monism, as well as the concepts of Being and Univocity . He married Denise Paul "Fanny" Grandjouan in 1956 and they had two children. According to James Miller, Deleuze portrayed little visible interest in actually doing many of

13493-956: The risky things he so vividly conjured up in his lectures and writing. Married, with two children, he outwardly lived the life of a conventional French professor. He kept his fingernails untrimmed because, as he once explained, he lacked "normal protective fingerprints", and therefore could not "touch an object, particularly a piece of cloth, with the pads of my fingers without sharp pain". When once asked to talk about his life, he replied: "Academics' lives are seldom interesting." Deleuze concludes his reply to this critic thus: What do you know about me, given that I believe in secrecy? ... If I stick where I am, if I don't travel around, like anyone else I make my inner journeys that I can only measure by my emotions, and express very obliquely and circuitously in what I write. ... Arguments from one's own privileged experience are bad and reactionary arguments. Deleuze, who had suffered from respiratory ailments from

13624-405: The rupture which characterizes the event are thought in terms of set theory , and specifically Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice . In short, the event is a truth caused by a hidden "part" or set appearing within existence; this part escapes language and known existence, and thus being itself lacks the terms and resources to fully process the event. For Badiou the problem which

13755-460: The sales of his books had oscillated between 2,000 and 6,000 copies. As Rafael Bahr pointed out at the time (in 2009), Badiou despised Sarkozy and barely could write his name. Instead, Badiou usually called Sarkozy "the Rat Man" throughout The Meaning of Sarkozy. Steven Poole also pointed out that this characterization (Rat Man) brought charges of antisemitism against Badiou. But as Bahr notes,

13886-870: The same goes for philosophical concepts, since there are distinct concepts of these spaces." From the 1930s onward, German philosopher Martin Heidegger wrote in a series of manuscripts and books on concepts of Difference, Identity, Representation , and Event ; notably among these the Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis) (Written 1936-38; published posthumously 1989); none of the relevant texts were translated into French by Deleuze's death in 1995, excluding any strong possibility of appropriation. However, Heidegger's early work can be traced through mathematician Albert Lautman , who drew heavily from Heidegger's Sein und Zeit and Vom Wesen des Grundes (1928), which James Bahoh describes as having "...decisive influence on

14017-415: The society of discipline to argue that society is undergoing a shift in structure and control. Where societies of discipline were characterized by discrete physical enclosures (such as schools, factories, prisons, office buildings, etc.), institutions and technologies introduced since World War II have dissolved the boundaries between these enclosures. As a result, social coercion and discipline have moved into

14148-430: The strictures of the relativistic constructible universe of language, by a process Cohen calls forcing . And he concludes in following that while ontology can mark out a space for an inhabitant of the constructible situation to decide upon the indiscernible, it falls to the subject – about which the ontological situation cannot comment – to nominate this indiscernible, this generic point; and thus nominate, and give name to,

14279-432: The temptation to suture itself ('sew itself', that is, to hand over its entire intellectual effort) to any of these independent truth procedures. When philosophy does suture itself to one of its conditions (and Badiou argues that the history of philosophy during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is primarily a history of sutures), what results is a philosophical "disaster." Consequently, philosophy is, according to Badiou,

14410-483: The text. Even in earlier Heideggerian texts such as Sein und Zeit , however, the critique of representation is "...cast in terms of the being of truth, or the processes of uncovering and covering (grounded in Dasein's existence) whereby beings come into and withdraw from phenomenal presence." In parallel, Deleuze's extended critique of representation (in the sense of detailing a "genealogy" of the antiquated beliefs as well)

14541-730: The true lover's love the unfolding of a truth.) Badiou has a very rigorous notion of truth, one that is strongly against the grain of much of contemporary European thought. Badiou at once embraces the traditional modernist notion that truths are genuinely invariant (always and everywhere the case, eternal and unchanging) and the incisively postmodernist notion that truths are constructed through processes. Badiou's theory of truth, exposited throughout his work, accomplishes this strange mixture by uncoupling invariance from self-evidence (such that invariance does not imply self-evidence), as well as by uncoupling constructedness from relativity (such that constructedness does not lead to relativism). The idea, here,

14672-446: The twentieth century mathematician and philosopher [...] whose theory of dialectical Ideas Deleuze appropriated and modified for his own use." The similarities between Heidegger's later, post-turn , 1930-1976 thought and Deleuze's early works in the 60s and 70s are generally described by Deleuze-scholar Daniel W. Smith in the following way: " Difference and Repetition could be read as a response to Being and Time (for Deleuze, Being

14803-403: The undecidable event. Badiou thereby marks out a philosophy by which to refute the apparent relativism or apoliticism in post-structuralist thought. Badiou's ultimate ethical maxim is therefore one of: 'decide upon the undecidable'. It is to name the indiscernible, the generic set, and thus name the event that re-casts ontology in a new light. He identifies four domains in which a subject (who, it

14934-537: The unique mapping of his books that allow for multifaceted readings. Deleuze's main philosophical project in the works he wrote prior to his collaborations with Guattari can be summarized as an inversion of the traditional metaphysical relationship between identity and difference . Traditionally, difference is seen as derivative from identity: e.g., to say that "X is different from Y" assumes some X and Y with at least relatively stable identities (as in Plato's forms). On

15065-678: The university was relocated to the suburb of Saint-Denis , to the north of Paris. The university's capacity of 24,000 students per year makes "Paris VIII" an important university with internationally recognized departments in Philosophy , Political Sciences , Cinema Arts , Communication Studies , and Feminist Studies . In 1992 and 1998, the University of Paris-VIII created two university technical institutes (in French: IUT ), in Tremblay-en-France and Montreuil . In 2008,

15196-433: The university, along with seven other humanities and social sciences institutions, launched a campus project to the north of Paris, with the aim of bringing together on the same site a common research facility in the humanities and social sciences. In 2009, this became the Condorcet Campus , which opens in 2019. In 2024, the university inaugurated the renovation of Building C, marking the first energy-efficient renovation of

15327-464: The various versions of the 'Arab nation' were. Everyone agrees, it seems, on the point that the Taliban do not embody the path of modernity for Afghanistan .” A modern democracy, he writes, must count all its residents as citizens, and "there is no acceptable reason to exempt the state of Israel from that rule. The claim is sometimes made that this state is the only 'democratic' state in the region. But

15458-448: The way down. To confront reality honestly, Deleuze argues, beings must be grasped exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, predicates, etc.) fail to attain what he calls "difference in itself." "If philosophy has a positive and direct relation to things, it is only insofar as philosophy claims to grasp the thing itself, according to what it is, in its difference from everything it

15589-633: The work of announcing the truth in question, genuine knowledge is produced (knowledge often appears in Badiou's work under the title of the "veridical"). While such knowledge is produced in the process of being faithful to a truth event, for Badiou, knowledge, in the figure of the encyclopedia, always remains fragile, subject to what may yet be produced as faithful subjects of the event produce further knowledge. According to Badiou, truth procedures proceed to infinity, such that faith (fidelity) outstrips knowledge. (Badiou, following both Lacan and Heidegger , distances truth from knowledge.) The dominating ideology of

15720-492: The work of other philosophers ( Baruch Spinoza , Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , David Hume , Immanuel Kant , Friedrich Nietzsche , Henri Bergson , Michel Foucault ) and artists ( Marcel Proust , Franz Kafka , Francis Bacon ); on the other, eclectic philosophical tomes organized by concept (e.g., difference, sense, event, economy, cinema, desire, philosophy). However, both of these aspects are seen by his critics and analysts as often overlapping, in particular, due to his prose and

15851-421: The world in general. But when substantives and adjectives begin to dissolve, when the names of pause and rest are carried away by the verbs of pure becoming and slide into the language of events, all identity disappears from the self, the world, and God." Deleuze's peculiar readings of the history of philosophy stem from this unusual epistemological perspective. To read a philosopher is no longer to aim at finding

15982-567: Was "Structures of Demonstration in the First Two Books of Spinoza's Ethics ", "Structures démonstratives dans les deux premiers livres de l'Éthique de Spinoza"). He taught at the lycée in Reims from 1963 where he became a close friend of fellow playwright (and philosopher) François Regnault , and published two novels before moving first to the faculty of letters of the University of Reims (the collège littéraire universitaire ) and then to

16113-404: Was "a joke meant to make people who like us laugh, and make everyone else livid." ) In the 1970s, the Anti-Oedipus , written in a style by turns vulgar and esoteric, offering a sweeping analysis of the family, language, capitalism, and history via eclectic borrowings from primarily Marx , Freud , Lacan , and Nietzsche , but also featuring insights from dozens of other writers, was received as

16244-484: Was a French philosopher who, from the early 1950s until his death in 1995, wrote on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art. His most popular works were the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia : Anti-Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980), both co-written with psychoanalyst Félix Guattari . His metaphysical treatise Difference and Repetition (1968) is considered by many scholars to be his magnum opus . An important part of Deleuze's oeuvre

16375-586: Was arrested for his participation in the French Resistance , and died while in transit to a concentration camp. In 1944, Deleuze went to study at the Sorbonne . His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as Georges Canguilhem , Jean Hyppolite , Ferdinand Alquié , and Maurice de Gandillac . Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers. Deleuze passed

16506-420: Was at the time headed by Michel Foucault , who in this stage of his career was at his most militant, on one occasion participating in a student occupation and pelting the police outside the building with projectiles. The most consequential scandal of this department emerged around one of the philosophy professors, Jacques Lacan 's daughter Judith Miller . The department had its accreditation withdrawn after it

16637-638: Was born into a middle-class family in Paris and lived there for most of his life. His mother was Odette Camaüer and his father, Louis, was an engineer. His initial schooling was undertaken during World War II, during which time he attended the Lycée Carnot . He also spent a year in khâgne at the Lycée Henri IV . During the Nazi occupation of France , Deleuze's brother, three years his senior, Georges,

16768-472: Was conducted under the direction of Jean Hyppolite and Georges Canguilhem . From 1960 to 1964, he held a position at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique . During this time he published the seminal Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962) and befriended Michel Foucault . From 1964 to 1969, he was a professor at the University of Lyon . In 1968, Deleuze defended his two DrE dissertations amid

16899-524: Was established shortly before the latter officially ceased to exist on 31 December 1970. It was founded as a direct response to events of May 1968 , as a campus of the University of Paris in Vincennes . This response was twofold: it was sympathetic to students' demands for more freedom, but also represented the movement of students out of central Paris, especially the Latin Quarter , where the street fighting of 1968 had taken place. Founded in 1969,

17030-560: Was revealed that Miller had handed out course credit to strangers she met on a bus. Miller was subsequently fired by the French education ministry after saying in a radio interview that the university was a capitalist institution and that she was trying to sabotage it from within. Since the turmoil in the late 1960s, the University of Vincennes has endorsed a far more mainstream academic life and has brought in new departments, new professors, and national rules to effect this change. In 1980,

17161-435: Was translated into English only in 2005, a full seventeen years after its French publication. As is implied in the title of the book, two elements mark the thesis of Being and Event : the place of ontology, or 'the science of being qua being' (being in itself), and the place of the event – which is seen as a rupture in being – through which the subject finds realization and reconciliation with truth. This situation of being and

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