Misplaced Pages

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81-541: The word "bagne" comes from the Italian bagno , name of a prison in Livorno built on the site of a therma , an ancient Roman Bathhouse. The galleys were originally port bagnes (or maritime bagnes), which explains why part of the vocabulary of bagne and the prison comes from the vocabulary of the galley slaves . French colonial bagnes were established by a series of decrees in 1852 and 1853, supplemented by

162-418: A unit of account (i.e., a monetary unit used in accounting) used in early modern France . The 1262 monetary reform established the livre tournois as 20 sous tournois , or 80.88 grams of fine silver . The franc à cheval was a gold coin of one livre tournois minted in large numbers from 1360. In 1549, the livre tournois was decreed a unit of account, and in 1667 it officially replaced

243-421: A "word" in the opinion of the writers of that language. This written form of a word constitutes a lexeme . The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes. When a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. One distinguishable meaning of the term "word" can be defined on phonological grounds. It

324-663: A certain way), etc. In languages with a literary tradition , the question of what is considered a single word is influenced by orthography . Word separators , typically spaces and punctuation marks are common in modern orthography of languages using alphabetic scripts , but these are a relatively modern development in the history of writing . In character encoding , word segmentation depends on which characters are defined as word dividers. In English orthography , compound expressions may contain spaces. For example, ice cream , air raid shelter and get up each are generally considered to consist of more than one word (as each of

405-416: A following semi-vowel /j/, yielding the corresponding palatal sound, but only within one word. Conversely, external sandhi rules act across word boundaries. The prototypical example of this rule comes from Sanskrit ; however, initial consonant mutation in contemporary Celtic languages or the linking r phenomenon in some non-rhotic English dialects can also be used to illustrate word boundaries. It

486-686: A galley general independent of the Admiral of France and served by a special corps, was originally based in Marseille where all the prison facilities were located until the middle of the eighteenth century. The rowers generally remained on board when the galleys stayed in Toulon . But in 1748, Louis XV decreed the abolition of the Galères corps and their attachment to the Royal Navy. Toulon became

567-520: A group of words called articles , such as the (the definite article) or a (the indefinite article), which mark definiteness or identifiability. This class is not present in Japanese, which depends on context to indicate this difference. On the other hand, Japanese has a class of words called particles which are used to mark noun phrases according to their grammatical function or thematic relation, which English marks using word order or prosody. It

648-500: A lexeme, especially in agglutinative languages. For example, there is little doubt that in Turkish the lexeme for house should include nominative singular ev and plural evler . However, it is not clear if it should also encompass the word evlerinizden 'from your houses', formed through regular suffixation. There are also lexemes such as "black and white" or "do-it-yourself", which, although consisting of multiple words, still form

729-452: A lexicon; and syntactically , as the smallest permutable and substitutable unit of a sentence. In some languages, these different types of words coincide and one can analyze, for example, a "phonological word" as essentially the same as "grammatical word". However, in other languages they may correspond to elements of different size. Much of the difficulty stems from the eurocentric bias, as languages from outside of Europe may not follow

810-442: A newly minted French coin could be reduced while nevertheless maintaining the old value in livre tournois or (2) the official value of a domestic or foreign coin in circulation could be increased. By reversing these techniques, currencies could be reinforced. For example: Royal finance officers faced many difficulties. In addition to currency speculation, forgery and the intentional shaving of precious metal from coins (which

891-489: A period equivalent to their initial sentence. In France , the use of convicts as rowers on the royal galleys dates back to Jacques Cœur in the 15th century. The penalty of the galleys was systematically applied from Louis XIV onwards, under the impetus of Colbert , and particularly after 1685 to eradicate Protestantism following the Edict of Fontainebleau . The Galleys's arsenal was located in Marseille . The galleys were

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972-501: A ration of wine for the workers, was mostly based on dried vegetables, hence the name "gourgane" ("beans" in Provençal) given to their guards. Due to the poor sanitary conditions, in 1777, a hospital was set up in the casemates of the southeast rampart of Darse Vauban, where additional buildings were erected against the rampart. Then, in 1797, the hospital moved to a huge 200-meter-long building, oriented north-south, built-in 1783 along

1053-709: A rock"), and sentences ("I threw a rock, but missed"). In many languages, the notion of what constitutes a "word" may be learned as part of learning the writing system. This is the case for the English language , and for most languages that are written with alphabets derived from the ancient Latin or Greek alphabets . In English orthography , the letter sequences "rock", "god", "write", "with", "the", and "not" are considered to be single-morpheme words, whereas "rocks", "ungodliness", "typewriter", and "cannot" are words composed of two or more morphemes ("rock"+"s", "un"+"god"+"li"+"ness", "type"+"writ"+"er", and "can"+"not"). Since

1134-412: A similar fundamental classification into a nominal (nāma, suP) and a verbal (ākhyāta, tiN) class, based on the set of suffixes taken by the word. Some words can be controversial, such as slang in formal contexts; misnomers, due to them not meaning what they would imply; or polysemous words, due to the potential confusion between their various senses. In ancient Greek and Roman grammatical tradition,

1215-492: A single collocation with a set meaning. Grammatical words are proposed to consist of a number of grammatical elements which occur together (not in separate places within a clause) in a fixed order and have a set meaning. However, there are exceptions to all of these criteria. Single grammatical words have a fixed internal structure; when the structure is changed, the meaning of the word also changes. In Dyirbal , which can use many derivational affixes with its nouns, there are

1296-580: A suffix, e.g. ya-nta 'go!', thus conforming to a segmental pattern of Walmatjari words. In the Pitjantjatjara dialect of the Wati language , another language form Australia, a word-medial syllable can end with a consonant but a word-final syllable must end with a vowel. In most languages, stress may serve a criterion for a phonological word. In languages with a fixed stress, it is possible to ascertain word boundaries from its location. Although it

1377-511: A voluntary imposition, whereby such a word is made arbitrarily the mark of such an idea". Wittgenstein 's thought transitioned from a word as representation of meaning to "the meaning of a word is its use in the language." Each word belongs to a category, based on shared grammatical properties. Typically, a language's lexicon may be classified into several such groups of words. The total number of categories as well as their types are not universal and vary among languages. For example, English has

1458-484: Is a highly analytic language with few inflectional affixes, making it unnecessary to delimit words orthographically. However, there are many multiple-morpheme compounds in Mandarin, as well as a variety of bound morphemes that make it difficult to clearly determine what constitutes a word. Japanese uses orthographic cues to delimit words, such as switching between kanji (characters borrowed from Chinese writing) and

1539-411: Is a unit larger or equal to a syllable, which can be distinguished based on segmental or prosodic features, or through its interactions with phonological rules. In Walmatjari , an Australian language, roots or suffixes may have only one syllable but a phonologic word must have at least two syllables. A disyllabic verb root may take a zero suffix, e.g. luwa-ø 'hit!', but a monosyllabic root must take

1620-404: Is impossible to predict word boundaries from stress alone in languages with phonemic stress, there will be just one syllable with primary stress per word, which allows for determining the total number of words in an utterance. Many phonological rules operate only within a phonological word or specifically across word boundaries. In Hungarian , dental consonants /d/, /t/, /l/ or /n/ assimilate to

1701-448: Is not clear if any categories other than interjection are universal parts of human language. The basic bipartite division that is ubiquitous in natural languages is that of nouns vs verbs . However, in some Wakashan and Salish languages , all content words may be understood as verbal in nature. In Lushootseed , a Salish language, all words with 'noun-like' meanings can be used predicatively, where they function like verb. For example,

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1782-412: Is often the case that a phonological word does not correspond to our intuitive conception of a word. The Finnish compound word pääkaupunki 'capital' is phonologically two words ( pää 'head' and kaupunki 'city') because it does not conform to Finnish patterns of vowel harmony within words. Conversely, a single phonological word may be made up of more than one syntactical elements, such as in

1863-525: Is on the island of Nosy Lava. There were 11 penitentiaries in this territory. Until 1938, some of the Indochinese convicts were transported to other French prison sites to make up for the shortage of manpower due to losses in living conditions. During the Napoleonic era, Italy boasted the bagnes of Genoa, Civitavecchia and La Spezia. The figure of the convict and the penitentiary were to inspire

1944-403: Is the smallest segment of sound that can be theoretically isolated by word accent and boundary markers; on the orthographic level as a segment indicated by blank spaces in writing or print ; on the basis of morphology as the basic element of grammatical paradigms like inflection , different from word-forms; within semantics as the smallest and relatively independent carrier of meaning in

2025-458: Is the study of word formation and structure. Words may undergo different morphological processes which are traditionally classified into two broad groups: derivation and inflection . Derivation is a process in which a new word is created from existing ones, with an adjustment to its meaning and often with a change of word class. For example, in English the verb to convert may be modified into

2106-421: The livre parisis . In 1720, the livre tournois was redefined as 0.31 grams of pure gold, and in 1726, in a devaluation under Louis XV , as 4.50516 grams of fine silver. It was the basis of the revolutionary French franc of 1795, defined as 4.5 grams of fine silver exactly. ( La Rochelle mint) In France, the livre was worth 240 deniers (the "Tours penny"). These deniers were first minted by

2187-544: The Louisiana Purchase treaty of 1803 specified the relative ratios of the franc , dollar and livre tournois . The official use of the livre tournois accounting unit in all contracts in France was legislated in 1549, but it had been one of the standard units of accounting in France since the 13th century. In 1577 the livre tournois accounting unit was officially abolished and accountants switched to

2268-471: The abbey of Saint Martin , in the province of Touraine . Soon after Philip II of France seized the counties of Anjou and Touraine in 1203 and standardized the use of the livre tournois there, the livre tournois began to supersede the livre parisis (Paris pound) which had been up to that point the official currency of the Capetian dynasty . The livre tournois was, in common with

2349-523: The and of ). Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes , indefinable words representing fundamental concepts that are intuitively meaningful. According to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax , words (also called lexical items in

2430-645: The écu , which was at that time the major French gold coin in actual circulation, but in 1602 the livre tournois accounting unit was brought back. (A monetary unit of accounting based on the livre parisis continued to be used for minor uses in and around Paris and was not officially abolished until 1667 by Louis XIV ). Since coins in Europe in the Middle Ages and the early modern period (the French écu , Louis , teston d'argent , denier , double, franc ;

2511-577: The 1810 penal code's separation of adults and children, some experiments were made on juvenile delinquents. Another agricultural colony experiment began in 1824. Young inmates from the Gaillon Central Prison were sent to work in the fields daily. A colony was set up there in 1847 due to the acquisition of the Douaires farm. This institution closed in 1925. In 1832, Count d'Argout proposed apprenticeships for these children, but this proposal

Bagne (penal establishment) - Misplaced Pages Continue

2592-581: The Ancien régime, with the penal code of 1791. From the time of the Directoire and then the Empire, there was a return to a policy of repression. The number of convicts rose from 4,000 in 1795 to 10,000 in 1812. The 1810 Penal Code transformed the galley sentence into an iron penalty. This sentence did not change the way convict labor was carried out in the arsenals. It wasn't until the transportation policy

2673-598: The Arsenal and even in town. The convicts' clothing, consisting of a cap and a habit , differed in color according to the nature and reason for their sentence. Under the Ancien régime , convicts were branded with red iron. One foot was encircled by a ring fitted with a chain to immobilize them. The "toughest" were chained two by two; the ball and chain was a disciplinary punishment, along with caning with rope. These punishments gradually eased. Food, which included little meat and

2754-533: The Colonies, a decree-law of June 17, 1938, signed by French President Albert Lebrun abolished deportation, but detention in a penal colony remained in force until 1945. On August 1, 1953, the last convicts and their supervisors returned to France. There is only one prison in French Guiana, but it is made up of several camps and penitentiaries. Communards were deported there. The Nosy Lava penal colony

2835-478: The English phrase I'll come , where I'll forms one phonological word. A word can be thought of as an item in a speaker's internal lexicon; this is called a lexeme . However, this may be different from the meaning in everyday speech of "word", since one lexeme includes all inflected forms. The lexeme teapot refers to the singular teapot as well as the plural teapots . There is also the question to what extent should inflected or compounded words be included in

2916-622: The Spanish doubloon , pistole , real ; the Italian florin , ducat or sequin ; the German and Austrian thaler ; the Dutch gulden , etc.) did not have any indication of their value, their official value was determined by royal edicts. In cases of financial need, French kings could use the official value for currency devaluation . This could be done in two ways: (1) the amount of precious metal in

2997-530: The Transportation Act of 1854. They were only abolished in 1938 (transportation to a bagne by deportation ), and definitively abolished in 1945 (detention in a bagne). However, the last prisoners had to complete their sentences and were not released until 1953. At the French Guiana penal colony , doubling the sentence meant that all convicts had to stay on after serving their sentence, for

3078-548: The administration. They could also receive a concession (land to develop) and, later, an urban concession (bakery or other work of collective interest). The sentence of relegation did not apply to any particular offense. It was enough to have been convicted several times to be relegated to French Guiana. Relegation was always for life. There were two types of relegués: The French army also set up colonial military prisons in North Africa, intended for strong-headed convicts and

3159-633: The agricultural colonies and for children under 16 sentenced to more than 2 years, the state set up a more repressive structure called "Colonie Correctionnelle". This penal institution for young inmates was set up in Corsica , in the Ajaccio region, in the Saint-Antoine valley, under the name of Colonie correctionnelle de Saint-Antoine. The establishment was a state-run detention center, a veritable children's penal colony. They were abolished, along with

3240-671: The agricultural colonies, with the 1945 Ordinance on delinquent children. It was the 1934 revolt of the Belle-Île-en-Mer colony that led to the 1945 reform. This revolt inspired Jacques Prévert 's poem La chasse à l'enfant . Jean Genet recounts his journey from the Mettray penal colony to the Fontevrault power station in Miracle de la Rose. In October 2020, an archaeological excavation campaign on Reunion Island studied

3321-461: The arsenals of Toulon, Cherbourg, Brest, and Rochefort was directly linked to the need for forced labor to build and rebuild the French fleet. Although rare, galleys continued to be used during the Revolution, as demonstrated by the law of August 22, 1790, which imposed the penalty on thieves or carriers ashore of a ship's ammunition worth more than fifty francs. Some prisoners were convicted under

Bagne (penal establishment) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3402-459: The base for the galleys that left Marseille for good, as its penal colony was abolished. From then on, Toulon had to house the convicts. At first, this was done on the galleys, to which vessels were added, and which came to be known as floating bagnes. By the end of the 18th century, there were some 3,000 convicts in Toulon. They were mainly employed in heavy labor, earthworks, and construction, in

3483-437: The beginning of the study of linguistics, numerous attempts at defining what a word is have been made, with many different criteria. However, no satisfying definition has yet been found to apply to all languages and at all levels of linguistic analysis. It is, however, possible to find consistent definitions of "word" at different levels of description. These include definitions on the phonetic and phonological level, that it

3564-815: The components are free forms, with the possible exception of get ), and so is no one , but the similarly compounded someone and nobody are considered single words. Sometimes, languages which are close grammatically will consider the same order of words in different ways. For example, reflexive verbs in the French infinitive are separate from their respective particle, e.g. se laver ("to wash oneself"), whereas in Portuguese they are hyphenated, e.g. lavar-se , and in Spanish they are joined, e.g. lavarse . Not all languages delimit words expressly. Mandarin Chinese

3645-408: The concept is simply a convention used in everyday situations. The concept of "word" is distinguished from that of a morpheme , which is the smallest unit of language that has a meaning, even if it cannot stand on its own. Words are made out of at least one morpheme. Morphemes can also be joined to create other words in a process of morphological derivation . In English and many other languages,

3726-410: The concept remain controversial. Different standards have been proposed, depending on the theoretical background and descriptive context; these do not converge on a single definition. Some specific definitions of the term "word" are employed to convey its different meanings at different levels of description, for example based on phonological , grammatical or orthographic basis. Others suggest that

3807-558: The cost of the return journey to France or North Africa remained the responsibility of the convict. However, due to the lack of work in the region, most released convicts were rarely able to pay for their return. For sentences of hard labor exceeding eight years: after serving their sentence, convicts were assigned to reside in the colony for the rest of their lives. Convicts were divided into categories (law of May 1854): The first three categories could be authorized to work outside penitentiaries and camps for private individuals (family boys) or

3888-523: The country (police reports point to a relaxation of discipline in the maritime convict colonies). It was against this backdrop of European imperialism that Napoleon III instituted colonial penal colonies with the law of May 30, 1854, article 1 of which stipulates that "in future, the penalty of hard labor will be served in establishments created by decree of the Emperor, on the territory of one or more French possessions other than Algeria . Nevertheless, in

3969-456: The deaths of more than a dozen children, before order was restored on the island on October 4 by an army and gendarmerie detachment. A trial followed in January 1867. The colony was finally evacuated on November 23, 1878. A memorial has been erected on the site of the cemetery, consisting of a stone with plaques listing the names of the children who died there. For insubordinate offenders from

4050-438: The dual suffix -jarran and the suffix -gabun meaning "another". With the noun yibi they can be arranged into yibi-jarran-gabun ("another two women") or yibi-gabun-jarran ("two other women") but changing the suffix order also changes their meaning. Speakers of a language also usually associate a specific meaning with a word and not a single morpheme. For example, when asked to talk about untruthfulness they rarely focus on

4131-474: The event of an impediment to the transfer of convicts, and until such impediment has ceased, the sentence will be temporarily served in France". In 1836, the Toulon prison had 4,305 inmates, 1,193 of whom were sentenced to life: 174 to over 20 years, 382 to between 16 and 20 years, 387 to between 11 and 15 years, 1,469 to between 5 and 10 years and 700 to less than 5 years. Many famous convicts spent time here, including Vidocq in 1799, Marie Lafarge in 1840, and

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4212-679: The first penitentiary system to be organized on a kingdom-wide scale. With the September 27, 1748 decree, Louis XV abolished the galley corps. Disembarked galley slaves , known as chrome, were then assigned to the port bagnes (except galley slaves selected for rowing) and were required to work in the Navy's ports and arsenals. The Toulon bagne, the Brest bagne and the Rochefort bagne were created for this purpose. The Galères Royales , headed by

4293-604: The hospital used to be. In 1814, they were moved to a 115-meter-long east-west building, perpendicular to the hospital, built in 1783 on the south-west quay of the Vieille Darse, between the Chaîne Vieille de la passe and the Grand Rang. Nearby, a ship known as the "Admiral" was moored to guard the channel and fire the morning and evening cannons. Attaching the penal colony to the navy made it easier to organize

4374-636: The impostor Pierre Coignard. As for Jean Valjean , he was Victor Hugo 's imagination. The Toulon penal colony ceased to exist in 1873. Its buildings were distributed among various military services involved in coastal defense, including the Centre d'études de la Marine and the Artillerie de côte. They survived until 1944 when they were almost destroyed. On September 4, 1891, the implementing decree on prison disciplinary regulations prohibited convicts from receiving any remuneration for their work. However, after

4455-467: The intuitions of European scholars. Some of the criteria developed for "word" can only be applicable to languages of broadly European synthetic structure . Because of this unclear status, some linguists propose avoiding the term "word" altogether, instead focusing on better defined terms such as morphemes . Dictionaries categorize a language's lexicon into individually listed forms called lemmas . These can be taken as an indication of what constitutes

4536-633: The island's agricultural penal colony. This former children's penitentiary on îlet à Guillaume was founded in 1864 and run by the Missionary Congregation of the Holy Spirit. Up to 4,000 children were confined here. Its closure was ordered in 1871, but only became effective in 1879. It has been listed as a Historic Monument since 2008. On the initiative of the Guyanese Gaston Monnerville , undersecretary for

4617-452: The late Middle Ages and the early modern period, the use of an accounting currency became a financial necessity. In the world of international banking of the 13th century, it was the florin and ducat that were often used. In France, the livre tournois and the currency system based on it became a standard monetary unit of accounting and continued to be used even when the livre tournois ceased to exist as an actual coin. For example,

4698-534: The literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. Victor Hugo, in Les Misérables , Jean Valjean and the chain gang to the Toulon penal colony. Word A word is a basic element of language that carries meaning , can be used on its own, and is uninterruptible. Despite the fact that language speakers often have an intuitive grasp of what a word is, there is no consensus among linguists on its definition and numerous attempts to find specific criteria of

4779-403: The literature) are construed as "bundles" of linguistic features that are united into a structure with form and meaning. For example, the word "koalas" has semantic features (it denotes real-world objects, koalas ), category features (it is a noun), number features (it is plural and must agree with verbs, pronouns, and demonstratives in its domain), phonological features (it is pronounced

4860-654: The location of each group in the holds (top or bottom) of the prison ship (the Loire, then the Martinière) making the Atlantic crossing. The maritime bagnes were then transferred to Cayenne in 1852, and to New Caledonia in 1864, at a time when the Navy was switching from sail to steam, making the need for manpower less important. This transfer was also because convicts from mainland France were taking work away from honest workers and were considered too dangerous to be kept in

4941-408: The meaning of morphemes such as -th or -ness . Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of "Minimal Free Forms" in 1928. Words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. This correlates phonemes (units of sound) to lexemes (units of meaning). However, some written words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves (for example,

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5022-604: The military service of common-law convicts. The convicted soldiers were derisively called "joyeux" (happy). From 1889 (introduction of compulsory national service for convicts from civil courts), many of the soldiers from the special corps (from Biribi) made their way through the following bagne archipelago: correctional homes for minors ( Petite-Roquette and other prisons for minors) and penal colonies ( Colonie de Mettray and other colonies), colonial bagnes in North Africa, Bagne de Cayenne. The agricultural and maritime penal colonies for minors were veritable schools for crime. Following

5103-522: The morphemes that make up a word generally include at least one root (such as "rock", "god", "type", "writ", "can", "not") and possibly some affixes ("-s", "un-", "-ly", "-ness"). Words with more than one root ("[type][writ]er", "[cow][boy]s", "[tele][graph]ically") are called compound words . Contractions ("can't", "would've") are words formed from multiple words made into one. In turn, words are combined to form other elements of language, such as phrases ("a red rock", "put up with"), clauses ("I threw

5184-548: The name "franc" became a synonym for livre tournois in accounting. The first French paper money, issued between 1701 and 1720, was denominated in livre tournois (see "Standard Catalog of World Paper Money", Albert Pick). This was the last time the name was used officially, as later notes and coins were denominated simply in livres , the livre parisis having finally been abolished in 1667. With many forms of domestic and international money (with different weights, purities and quality) circulating throughout Europe in

5265-473: The noun a convert through stress shift and into the adjective convertible through affixation. Inflection adds grammatical information to a word, such as indicating case, tense, or gender. In synthetic languages , a single word stem (for example, love ) may inflect to have a number of different forms (for example, loves , loving , and loved ). However, for some purposes these are not usually considered to be different words, but rather different forms of

5346-448: The original livre of Charlemagne , divided into 20 sols ( sous after 1715), each of which was divided into 12 deniers . Between 1360 and 1641, coins worth one livre tournois were minted, known as francs (the name coming from the inscription Johannes Dei Gratia Francorum Rex , [ Jean, by the grace of God, King of the French ]). Other francs were minted under Charles V , Henry III and Henry IV . The use of

5427-548: The publication of the decree, convicts (the lightest sentences and transported prisoners who had completed their sentence) continued to receive a salary when they worked for the prison administration. They can also work on their account. Under the Second Empire and the Third Republic , deportation was reserved for spies , political activists , and traitors ( Alfred Dreyfus , though subsequently found innocent,

5508-893: The roles of other categories. The current classification of words into classes is based on the work of Dionysius Thrax , who, in the 1st century BC, distinguished eight categories of Ancient Greek words: noun , verb , participle , article , pronoun , preposition , adverb , and conjunction . Later Latin authors, Apollonius Dyscolus and Priscian, applied his framework to their own language; since Latin has no articles, they replaced this class with interjection . Adjectives ('happy'), quantifiers ('few'), and numerals ('eleven') were not made separate in those classifications due to their morphological similarity to nouns in Latin and Ancient Greek. They were recognized as distinct categories only when scholars started studying later European languages. In Indian grammatical tradition, Pāṇini introduced

5589-539: The same word. In these languages, words may be considered to be constructed from a number of morphemes . In Indo-European languages in particular, the morphemes distinguished are: Thus, the Proto-Indo-European *wr̥dhom would be analyzed as consisting of Philosophers have found words to be objects of fascination since at least the 5th century BC, with the foundation of the philosophy of language . Plato analyzed words in terms of their origins and

5670-404: The sounds making them up, concluding that there was some connection between sound and meaning, though words change a great deal over time. John Locke wrote that the use of words "is to be sensible marks of ideas", though they are chosen "not by any natural connexion that there is between particular articulate sounds and certain ideas, for then there would be but one language amongst all men; but by

5751-520: The territory of French colonies or possessions": after their sentence, convicted repeat offenders could not return to metropolitan France . They must serve a double sentence of relegation equivalent to the duration of their hard labor sentence. This is known as "doubling". Convicts refer to each other as "toughs", "those below", "crowbars", or "those above", to distinguish between first-time offenders ("toughs") and repeat offenders ("those above"). The prison administration does not mix them. This would refer to

5832-567: The two kana syllabaries. This is a fairly soft rule, because content words can also be written in hiragana for effect, though if done extensively spaces are typically added to maintain legibility. Vietnamese orthography, although using the Latin alphabet , delimits monosyllabic morphemes rather than words. The task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another begins. There are several methods for identifying word boundaries present in speech: Morphology

5913-412: The western quay of the Vieille Darse, called the "Grand Rang". This building had a vast vaulted first floor with three bays; the hospital occupied the first floor. Two square corner towers with pyramidal roofs completed the north and south sides; the convicts' chapel was housed in the northern tower. The rest of the building was used for administrative services. The able-bodied convicts had been housed where

5994-454: The word sbiaw can be understood as '(is a) coyote' rather than simply 'coyote'. On the other hand, in Eskimo–Aleut languages all content words can be analyzed as nominal, with agentive nouns serving the role closest to verbs. Finally, in some Austronesian languages it is not clear whether the distinction is applicable and all words can be best described as interjections which can perform

6075-407: The word was considered a unitary construct. The word ( dictiō ) was defined as the minimal unit of an utterance ( ōrātiō ), the expression of a complete thought. Livres tournois The livre tournois ( French pronunciation: [livʁ tuʁnwa] ; lit.   ' Tours pound ' ; abbreviation: ₶ or £ ) was one of numerous currencies used in medieval France , and

6156-423: The word was the basic unit of analysis. Different grammatical forms of a given lexeme were studied; however, there was no attempt to decompose them into morphemes. This may have been the result of the synthetic nature of these languages, where the internal structure of words may be harder to decode than in analytic languages. There was also no concept of different kinds of words, such as grammatical or phonological –

6237-638: The workforce. Equipping and fitting out a first-rank vessel (over 100 guns, 3 decks) cost an average of 1   million livres tournois , or around 150   million euros today. Successive conflicts (the Seven Years' War , the American War of Independence , and then the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars ) forced France to try to compete with the British fleet. The development of galleys in

6318-562: Was also established at Le Luc in the Gard department from 1856 to 1904. On January 8, 1861, on Île du Levant , the Sainte-Anne agricultural penal colony was officially authorized to open. Its aim was to clear the island's land for cultivation. The first contingent arrived on March 23, 1861. When the Ajaccio children's prison closed, 65 convicts were transferred to Sainte-Anne on September 28, 1866. A revolt broke out on October 2, leading to

6399-555: Was introduced in 1850 that the French prison system changed. From the 1840s onwards, politicians wanted to remove criminals from France. This policy of transportation began with the military prisons (disciplinary companies) set up in Algeria at the start of the colonial conquest. This transfer was justified by promoting the colony's development, which transformed it into a penal colony. The law of May 27, 1885, introduced relegation for repeat offenders, leading to "perpetual internment on

6480-559: Was not accepted, and in 1836, a prison was set up for children: Petite-Roquette in Paris. In 1840, the first private agricultural colony was set up in Mettray, Indre-et-Loire . It was intended for juvenile delinquents who were to be employed in agricultural work. Following this, the law of August 5, 1850, generalized this type of establishment, and some fifty private agricultural colonies were set up throughout France. An agricultural penal colony

6561-422: Was sentenced to deportation). As French political prisoners, deportees were not required to work. This was not the case for prisoners from the colonies. Transportation applied to convicts sentenced to forced labor. It was accompanied by doubling the sentence: anyone sentenced to less than 8 years of hard labor had to reside in the colony for a period equal to that of the sentence, under house arrest . After 1868,

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