Balkanization or Balkanisation is the process involving the fragmentation of an area, country, or region into multiple smaller and hostile units. It is usually caused by differences in ethnicity, culture, religion, and geopolitical interests.
132-549: The term was first coined in the early 20th century, and found its roots in the depiction of events during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and World War I (1914–1918), specifically referring to incidents that transpired earlier in the Balkan Peninsula . The term is pejorative ; when sponsored or encouraged by a sovereign third party, it has been used as an accusation against such third-party nations. Controversially,
264-576: A first past the post system. 56 members (43 pc) are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system . Members serve for a four-year term. The monarch appoints one Member of the Scottish Parliament , on the nomination of the Parliament, to be First Minister , with the convention being that the leader of the party with the largest number of seats is appointed First Minister, although any member who can command
396-530: A Greek unit to enter the city of Serres . The Bulgarian unit that entered Thessaloniki turned out to be an 18,000-strong division instead of the battalion, which caused concern among the Greeks, who viewed it as a Bulgarian attempt to establish a condominium over the city. In the event, due to the urgently needed reinforcements in the Thracian front, Bulgarian Headquarters was soon forced to remove its troops from
528-460: A compromise with Greece, despite several attempts made by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos , and Serbian insistence to keep all conquered territory paved the way to another conflict. On 1 May 1913, Greece and Serbia settled their differences and signed a military alliance directed against Bulgaria. On the night of 29 June 1913, the Bulgarian army made an ill-advised attempt to gain an advantage in
660-585: A devolved Scottish Parliament being established on 1 July 1999. The pro-independence Scottish National Party first became the governing party of the devolved parliament in 2007, and it won an outright majority of seats at the 2011 Scottish Parliament election . This led to an agreement between the Scottish and UK governments to hold the 2014 Scottish independence referendum . Voters were asked: "Should Scotland be an independent country?" 44.7 percent of voters answered "Yes" and 55.3 percent answered "No", with
792-557: A few kilometers away and also rushed to the battle. The Bulgarian attack was halted. The Greek army was also successful. It retreated according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was cleared of the remaining Bulgarian regiment. Then, the Greek army counterattacked and defeated the Bulgarians at Kilkis (Kukush), after which the mostly Bulgarian town was plundered and burnt and part of its mostly Bulgarian population massacred by
924-643: A gap of 292 years. Donald Dewar of the Labour Party subsequently became the First Minister of Scotland , while the Scottish National Party became the main opposition party. The egalitarian song " A Man's A Man for A' That ", by Robert Burns , was performed at the opening ceremony. The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature comprising 129 members . 73 members (57 pc) represent individual constituencies and are elected on
1056-560: A leading government economist, to report on the viability of an independent Scotland. He concluded that oil would have given an independent Scotland one of the strongest currencies in Europe. The report went on to say that officials advised government ministers on how to take "the wind out of the SNP sails". A common myth regarding the report is that when handed over to the incoming Labour government and classified as secret because of Labour fears over
1188-473: A lost decade in Africa. Economic stagnation ended only in the mid-1990s. Countries within the region started to input more stabilization policies. What was originally a high exchange rate eventually fell to a more reasonable exchange rate after devaluations in 1994. By 1994, the number of countries with an exchange rate 50 percent higher than the official exchange rate had decreased from 18 to four. However, there
1320-1252: A new Balkan war, due to Bulgaria's refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra as promised before the First Balkan War in exchange for Romanian neutrality. Its forces encountered little resistance and, by the time the Greeks accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice, they had reached Vrazhdebna , 11 km (7 mi) from the center of Sofia . Scottish independence Charles III William , Duke of Rothesay Swinney government The Rt Hon John Swinney MSP The Rt Hon John Swinney MSP Kate Forbes MSP Sixth session Alison Johnstone MSP Angela Constance MSP Dorothy Bain KC The Rt Hon Lord Carloway KC PC United Kingdom Parliament elections European Parliament elections Local elections Referendums Starmer ministry The Rt Hon Keir Starmer MP The Rt Hon Ian Murray MP Scottish independence ( Scottish Gaelic : Neo-eisimeileachd na h-Alba ; Scots : Scots unthirldom )
1452-653: A new referendum on Scottish independence, subject to confirmation of its legality and constitutionality . In November 2022 the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled that the Scottish Parliament did not have the power to legislate for a second referendum. Scotland emerged as an independent polity during the Early Middle Ages with some historians dating its foundation from the reign of Kenneth MacAlpin in 843. The level of independence of
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#17327655035431584-593: A record voter turnout of 85 percent. This resulted in Scotland remaining in the United Kingdom. A second referendum on independence has been proposed, particularly since the UK voted to leave the European Union in a June 2016 referendum and since pro-independence parties increased their majority in the 2021 Scottish Parliament election . In June 2022 Nicola Sturgeon proposed the date of 19 October 2023 for
1716-572: A referendum be held on the issue. Although the Labour Party and the Scottish National Party both officially supported devolution , support was split in both parties. Labour was divided between those who favoured devolution and those who wanted to maintain a full central Westminster government. In the SNP, there was division between those who saw devolution as a stepping stone to independence and those who feared it might detract from that ultimate goal. The resignation of Harold Wilson from office in 1976 brought James Callaghan to power, but his small majority
1848-478: A referendum offering independence as an option. Prime Minister Gordon Brown also publicly attacked the independence option. The three main parties opposed to independence instead formed a Commission on Scottish Devolution , chaired by Kenneth Calman . This reviewed devolution and considered all constitutional options apart from independence. In August 2009, the Scottish Government announced that
1980-715: A series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War , the four Balkan states of Greece , Serbia , Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it, in the process stripping the Ottomans of their European provinces, leaving only Eastern Thrace under Ottoman control. In the Second Balkan War , Bulgaria fought against
2112-539: Is a stable country but has separatist movements, the strongest of which is the Quebec sovereignty movement , which seeks to create a nation-state in Quebec, which encompasses the majority of Canada's French Canadian population. Two referendums have been held to decide the question, one in 1980 and one in 1995. Both were lost by the separatists, the latter by a small margin. Less mainstream and smaller movements also exist in
2244-503: Is clear that the majority of people voting have voted No to the referendum question." The "Yes" vote received 45% (1,617,989) support—the winning total needed was 1,852,828. Results were compiled from 32 council areas, with Glasgow backing independence—voting 53.5% "Yes" to 46.5% "No" (turnout in the area was 75%)—and Edinburgh voting against independence by 61% to 39% (turnout in the area was 84%). Darling stated in his post-result speech, "The silent have spoken", while Salmond stated, "I accept
2376-570: Is still limited progress in improving trade policies within the region, according to van de Walle. In addition, the post-independent countries still rely heavily on donors for development plans. Balkanization still has an impact on today's Africa. However, this causation narrative is not popular in many circles. During the 1980s, the Lebanese academic and writer Georges Corm used the term balkanization to describe attempts by supporters of Israel to create buffer states based on ethnic backgrounds in
2508-496: Is the idea of Scotland regaining its independence and once again becoming a sovereign state , independent from the United Kingdom. The term Scottish independence refers to the political movement that is campaigning to bring it about. Scotland was an independent kingdom through the Middle Ages , and fought wars to maintain its independence from England . The two kingdoms were united in personal union in 1603 when
2640-651: The Communauté Financière Africaine started to opt for "autonomy within the French community" in the postcolonial era. Countries in the CFA franc zone were allowed to impose tariffs, regulate trade and manage transport services. Zambia , Zimbabwe , Malawi , Uganda and Tanzania achieved independence toward the end of when the Great Powers postcolonial era came about. The period also saw
2772-477: The 1997 general election on the slogan "72 hours to save the union". His party ultimately suffered the worst electoral defeat in 91 years. The Labour Party won the 1997 general election in a landslide, and Donald Dewar as Secretary of State for Scotland agreed to the proposals for a Scottish Parliament . A referendum was held in September and 74.3% of those who voted approved the devolution plan (44.87% of
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#17327655035432904-671: The 2007 Scottish Parliament election , the Scottish National Party (SNP) pledged to hold an independence referendum by 2010. After winning the election, the SNP-controlled Scottish Government published a white paper entitled " Choosing Scotland's Future ", which outlined options for the future of Scotland, including independence. Scottish Labour, the Scottish Conservatives and Scottish Liberal Democrats opposed
3036-761: The Adriatic , while a second Army captured Kosovo and linked with the Montenegrin forces. Greece's main forces attacked from Thessaly into Macedonia through the Sarantaporo strait. On 7 November, in response to an Ottoman initiative, they entered into negotiations for the surrender of Thessaloniki . With the Greeks already there, and the Bulgarian 7th Rila Division moving swiftly from the north towards Thessaloniki, Hassan Tahsin Pasha considered his position to be hopeless. The Greeks offered more attractive terms than
3168-682: The Easter Rising and fought a War of Independence , Scotland did not resist central rule. There was, however, a persistent demand for Scottish home rule. The Scottish Office was relocated to St Andrew's House in Edinburgh during the 1930s. The Scottish Covenant was a petition to the UK Government asking for home rule. It was first proposed in 1930 by John MacCormick and formally written in 1949. The petition "was eventually signed by two million people" (the population of Scotland
3300-724: The February 1974 general election , seven SNP MPs were elected. The general election resulted in a hung parliament, so Prime Minister Harold Wilson called a second election for October 1974 , when the SNP performed even better than in February, winning 11 seats and obtaining over 30% of the total vote in Scotland. In January 1974, the Conservative government had commissioned the McCrone report , written by Professor Gavin McCrone,
3432-715: The First World War , the Liberal Government led by H. H. Asquith supported the concept of "Home Rule all round", whereby Scottish home rule would follow the Irish home rule proposed in the Government of Ireland Act 1914 . Asquith believed that there was an iniquity in that the component parts of the United Kingdom could come together to act together in common purposes, but those components could not deal with internal matters that did not require consent across
3564-649: The First World War , with reference to the many new states that arose from the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire . Countries in Europe, where uniting quite recently historically distinct peoples or nations, have seen outspoken separatists. These have prompted reactionary voices fearing Balkanization. The Iberian Peninsula , especially Spain, has from the time of Al-Andalus (ending in 1492) seen voices fearing disorderly rupture. Its main separatist movements today are Basque separatism and Catalan independentism . Canada
3696-592: The First World War . By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large elements of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule. In 1912, these countries formed the Balkan League . The First Balkan War began on 8 October 1912, when the League member states attacked the Ottoman Empire, and ended eight months later with
3828-580: The Kingdom of Ireland . Following the Irish War of Independence (1919–21) and the Anglo-Irish Treaty that ended the war, Ireland was partitioned into two states: Southern Ireland , which opted to become independent (and is now known as Republic of Ireland), and Northern Ireland , which – given its geographical extent which tended to ensure a Unionist majority – chose to remain within
3960-843: The Levant to protect Israeli sovereignty. In 2013 the French journalist Bernard Guetta writing in the Libération newspaper applied the term to: Balkan Wars First Balkan War: Second Balkan War: [REDACTED] 437,000+ [REDACTED] 450,000+ [REDACTED] 230,000 [REDACTED] 125,000 [REDACTED] 44,500 Total: 850,000 men [REDACTED] 348,000 [REDACTED] 330,000 [REDACTED] 255,000 [REDACTED] 148,000 [REDACTED] 12,800 [REDACTED] 632,000–1,500,000 Ottoman Muslim civilian deaths [REDACTED] 400,000–813,000 Ottoman Muslim refugees Serbian and Montenegrin front Greek front The Balkan Wars were
4092-619: The Novi Pazar area. The rest of the Allies, after giving a common ultimatum, declared war a week later. Bulgaria attacked towards Eastern Thrace, being stopped only at the outskirts of Constantinople at the Çatalca line and the isthmus of the Gallipoli peninsula , while secondary forces captured Western Thrace and Eastern Macedonia. Serbia attacked south towards Skopje and Monastir and then turned west to present-day Albania , reaching
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4224-554: The Ottoman Empire over the 19th century, but was coined at the end of the First World War. Albania was the only addition to the existing Balkan map at that time, as other nations had already formed in the nineteenth century. The term was initially employed by journalists and politicians, who used it as a conceptual tool to interpret the evolving global order resulting from the collapse of the Habsburg and Romanov Empires and
4356-499: The Referendum (Scotland) Bill, 2010 , which would detail the question and conduct of a possible referendum on the issue of independence, would be part of its legislative programme for 2009–10. The Bill was not expected to be passed, because of the SNP's status as a minority government and the opposition of all other major parties in Parliament. In September 2010, the Scottish Government announced that no referendum would occur before
4488-720: The Scottish Office were re-established to promote Scotland's interests and express its concerns to the UK Parliament. In 1886, however, Liberal Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone introduced the Irish Home Rule Bill . It was not regarded as an immediate constitutional priority however, particularly when the Irish Home Rule Bill was defeated in the House of Commons . Immediately before
4620-467: The Tartan Tax , a power it did not exercise and which was later replaced by wider tax-varying powers. The Scottish Parliament can refer devolved matters back to Westminster to be considered as part of United Kingdom-wide legislation by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered to be more appropriate for certain issues. The programmes of legislation enacted by
4752-691: The Treaty of London on 30(17) May 1913. After pressure from the Great Powers towards Greece and Serbia, who had postponed signing in order to fortify their defensive positions, the signing of the Treaty of London took place on 30 May 1913. With this treaty, the war between the Balkan Allies and the Ottoman Empire came to an end. From now on, the Great Powers had the right of decision on the territorial adjustments that had to be made, which even led to
4884-636: The United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020 to restrict the legislative competence of the Scottish Parliament. The primary purpose of the act is to constrain the capacity of the devolved institutions to use their regulatory autonomy. The legislation undermines the capability of the Scottish legislature to make different economic or social choices from those made in Westminster. In a January 2021 editorial concerning rising support for independence and its potential to break up
5016-499: The 1979 general election, while devolution was opposed by the Conservative governments led by Margaret Thatcher and John Major . Supporters of Scottish independence continued to hold mixed views on the Home Rule movement, which included many supporters of union who wanted devolution within the framework of the United Kingdom. Some saw it as a stepping stone to independence, while others wanted to go straight for independence. In
5148-588: The 1990s Yugoslav Wars . The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century. Serbia had gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) , while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a small area back to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous principality since 1878) incorporated
5280-421: The 2011 Scottish Parliament election. The SNP won an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament at the 2011 Scottish election . First Minister Alex Salmond stated his desire to hold a referendum "in the second half of the parliament", which would place it in 2014 or 2015. In January 2012, the UK Government offered to provide the Scottish Parliament with the specific powers to hold a referendum, providing it
5412-489: The Bulgarian 2nd and 1st Armies, newly arrived from the Serbian front, that had already taken defensive positions there following the Bulgarian victory at Kalimanci . By 30 July, the Greek army was outnumbered by the counter-attacking Bulgarian army, which attempted to encircle the Greeks in a Cannae -type battle, by applying pressure on their flanks. The Greek army was exhausted and faced logistical difficulties. The battle
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5544-518: The Bulgarian civilian population. The Greek army then divided its forces and advanced in two directions. Part proceeded east and occupied Western Thrace . The rest of the Greek army advanced up to the Struma River valley, defeating the Bulgarian army in the battles of Doiran and Mt. Beles, and continued its advance to the north towards Sofia . In the Kresna straits , the Greeks were ambushed by
5676-480: The Bulgarian counterpart, "As long as we are not allied with you, our influence over the Croats and Slovens will be insignificant". On the other side, Bulgaria wanted the autonomy of Macedonia region under the influence of the two countries. The then Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs General Stefan Paprikov stated in 1909 that, "It will be clear that if not today then tomorrow, the most important issue will again be
5808-481: The Bulgarian government and without an official declaration of war. During the night of 30(17) June 1913, they attacked the Serbian army at Bregalnica river and then the Greek army in Nigrita . The Serbian army resisted the sudden night attack, while most of the soldiers did not even know who they were fighting with, as Bulgarian camps were located next to Serbs and were considered allies. Montenegro's forces were just
5940-628: The Bulgarians did. On 8 November, Tahsin Pasha agreed to terms and 26,000 Ottoman troops passed over into Greek captivity. Before the Greeks entered the city, a German warship whisked the former sultan Abdul Hamid II out of Thessaloniki to continue his exile, across the Bosporus from Constantinople. With their army in Thessaloniki, the Greeks took new positions to the east and northeast, including Nigrita . On 12 November (on 26 October 1912, O.S. ) Greece expanded its occupied area and teamed up with
6072-500: The Canadian Prairie , especially Alberta , to protest what is seen as domination by Quebec and Ontario of Canadian politics. Saskatchewan Premier Roy Romanow also considered separation from Canada if the 1995 referendum had succeeded, which would have led to the balkanization of Canada. Quebec has been the scene of a small but vociferous partition movement from the part of Anglo-Quebecers activist groups opposed to
6204-684: The Conservative Party), Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg (Leader of the Liberal Democrats), and Leader of the Opposition Ed Miliband (Leader of the Labour Party). The BBC website announced the final result of the referendum at 06:24 on 19 September 2014: the "No" vote prevailed with 55% (2,001,926) of the votes from an overall voter turnout of 84.5%. Chief counting officer Mary Pitcaithly stated: "It
6336-432: The EU", and that a second referendum was "highly likely". However, a spokesperson for Prime Minister Theresa May said that "The prime minister and the government does not believe that there is a mandate for [a second referendum]. There was one only two years ago. There was an extremely high turnout and there was a resounding result in favour of Scotland remaining in the UK". At the 2019 United Kingdom general election ,
6468-474: The Empire. It forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the defunct Ottoman constitution of 1876 and parliament . Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy. Elections were held to form a representative, multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament. However, following the Sultan's failed counter-coup of 1909 , the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant. In October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized
6600-425: The First Balkan War, Serbia and Greece, while Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire intervened later against Bulgaria, with Romania attacking Bulgaria from the north in violation of a peace treaty. When the Greek army had entered Thessaloniki in the First Balkan War ahead of the Bulgarian 7th division by only a day, they were asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter the city. Greece accepted in exchange for allowing
6732-434: The Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect. Serbia was frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia. In March 1909, Serbia was forced to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation by Serbian nationalists. Instead, the Serbian government (PM: Nikola Pašić ) looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably "Old Serbia" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and
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#17327655035436864-493: The Greek army. Following the capture of Kilkis, the Greek army's pace was not quick enough to prevent the retaliatory destruction of Nigrita , Serres , and Doxato and massacres of non-combatant Greek inhabitants at Sidirokastro and Doxato by the Bulgarian army. The Greek committed further war crimes against the Bulgarian population during it advance - in total about 160 Bulgarian villages were destroyed and most of their population expelled. with multiple additional massacres of
6996-573: The Greeks had a military advantage on the eve of the war because their armies confronted comparatively weak Ottoman forces in the First Balkan War and suffered relatively light casualties, while the Bulgarians were involved in heavy fighting in Thrace. The Serbs and Greeks had time to fortify their positions in Macedonia. The Bulgarians also held some advantages, controlling internal communication and supply lines. On 29(16) June 1913, General Savov, under direct orders of Tsar Ferdinand I , issued attack orders against both Greece and Serbia without consulting
7128-412: The Greeks received international recognition on their claim of Thessaloniki. Similarly, in modern North Macedonia , the tension between Serbia and Bulgaria due to the latter's aspirations over Vardar Macedonia generated many incidents between their respective armies, prompting Serbia to keep its army mobilized. Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by a quarter, as
7260-407: The Imperial unity that had united the then-prominent Scottish Unionist Party . The Unionist Party subsequently suffered a steady decline in support. The Scottish National Party (SNP) won their second-ever seat in the House of Commons in 1967, when Winnie Ewing was the unexpected winner of the 1967 Hamilton by-election . The seat was previously a safe Labour Party seat, and this victory brought
7392-497: The Macedonian Question. And this question, whatever happens, cannot be decided without more or less direct participation of the Balkan States". Last but not least, they noted down the divisions that should be made of the Ottoman territories after a victorious outcome of the war. Bulgaria would gain all the territories eastern of Rodopi Mountains and River Strimona, while Serbia would annex the territories northern and western of Mount Skardu. The alliance pact between Greece and Bulgaria
7524-422: The Military League dissolved itself. Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to annex districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia. In August 1910, Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom. Following the Italian victory in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912, the severity of the Ottomanizing policy of
7656-429: The Ottoman Empire was fruitless, because of the doubts the Bulgarians held on the strength of the Greek Army. Later that year, in December 1911, Bulgaria and Serbia agreed to start negotiations in forming an alliance under the tight inspection of Russia. The treaty between Serbia and Bulgaria was signed on 29 of February/13 of March 1912. Serbia sought expansion to " Old Serbia " and as Milan Milovanovich noted in 1909 to
7788-418: The Ottoman Empire was not possible. France wished to strengthen its position in the region, especially in the Levant (today's Lebanon, Syria, and Israel). Habsburg -ruled Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both were troubled multinational entities and thus the collapse of the one might weaken the other. The Habsburgs also saw a strong Ottoman presence in
7920-401: The Ottoman Empire, after negotiations failed regarding the border status. On 30 of September/13 of October, the ambassadors of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece delivered the common ultimatum to the Ottoman government, which was immediately rejected. The Empire withdrew its ambassadors from Sofia, Belgrade, and Athens, while the Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek diplomats left the Ottoman capital delivering
8052-400: The Ottoman army (the Struggle for Macedonia ). After the Young Turk revolution of July 1908, the situation changed drastically. The 1908 Young Turk Revolution saw the reinstatement of constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire and the start of the Second Constitutional Era . When the revolt broke out, it was supported by intellectuals, the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of
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#17327655035438184-433: The Ottomans, alarmed Greece, which decided to also keep its army mobilized. A month after the Second Balkan War started, the Bulgarian community of Thessaloniki no longer existed, as hundreds of long-time Bulgarian locals were arrested. Thirteen hundred Bulgarian soldiers and about five hundred komitadjis were also arrested and transferred to Greek prisons. In November 1913, the Bulgarians were forced to admit their defeat, as
8316-478: The SNP to national prominence, leading to Edward Heath 's 1968 Declaration of Perth and the establishment of the Kilbrandon Commission . The discovery of North Sea oil off the east coast of Scotland in 1970 further invigorated the debate over Scottish independence. The SNP organised a hugely successful campaign entitled " It's Scotland's oil ", emphasising how the discovery of oil could benefit Scotland's struggling deindustrialising economy and its populace. At
8448-404: The SNP won 48 out of 59 Scottish seats. Sturgeon asked Prime Minister Boris Johnson for his consent to hold another referendum. However, Johnson declined her request. He said that Sturgeon and her predecessor Alex Salmond had promised that the 2014 referendum would be a "once in a generation" vote. Shortly before the UK left the European single market , the Boris Johnson regime sought through
8580-468: The Scottish King James VI became James I of England, and the two kingdoms united politically into one kingdom called Great Britain in 1707 . This movement united the countries which ended the wars of independence and created relative peace. Political campaigns for Scottish self-government began in the 19th century, initially in the form of demands for home rule within the United Kingdom. Two referendums on devolution were held in 1979 and 1997 , with
8712-426: The Scottish Parliament since 1999 have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the United Kingdom. For instance, the costs of a university education, and care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the UK. Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public places in March 2006. In its manifesto for
8844-411: The Scottish kingdom was fought over by the Scottish kings and by the Norman and Angevin rulers of England who petitioned the Pope and other foreign rulers. A watershed in the Scottish kingdom's history was a succession crisis that erupted in 1290 when Edward I of England claimed the right of appointment to the Scottish throne. The Auld Alliance of Scotland and France against English interests
8976-412: The Serbian army to the northwest, while its main forces turned east towards Kavala , reaching the Bulgarians. Another Greek army attacked into Epirus towards Ioannina . On the naval front, the Ottoman fleet twice exited the Dardanelles and was twice defeated by the Greek Navy , in the battles of Elli and Lemnos . Greek dominance on the Aegean Sea made it impossible for the Ottomans to transfer
9108-605: The Serbs of their much-coveted Adriatic port, they demanded not only the entire Contested Zone , but also all of the Uncontested one they had occupied. Bulgarian efforts to appeal to the Russian Emperor, quoting, for example, the clauses of the Treaty, the material difference between Serbian (29,698) and Bulgarian casualties (87,926) or the surrender of the Bulgarian City of Silistra to Romania as compensation for its continued neutrality proved futile. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov instead kept encouraging Bulgaria to accede to an ever-increasing list of Serbian demands. In
9240-438: The Treaty itself. This event led to the formation of two ‘de facto’ military occupation zones on Macedonian territory, as Greece and Serbia tried to create a common border. In turn, Bulgarians were furious about Serbia's refusal to honour its commitments under the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty, which had split the geographic region of Macedonia into two zones, one contested between Serbia and Bulgaria, and another one, recognised by
9372-426: The UK. This was not a nationalist philosophy, but instead Asquith was acting in the belief that federalism was the "true basis of union" and that centralising power in Westminster was a political blunder. A Scottish Home Rule bill was first presented to Parliament in 1913, but its progress was soon ended as Parliament focused on emergency measures necessitated by the First World War. Unlike Ireland, which rebelled in
9504-527: The United Kingdom and later Prime Minister Gordon Brown talk of a "Balkanisation of Britain". Independence movements in the United Kingdom also exist in England , Cornwall and Northern England (themselves parts of England), Wales , and Northern Ireland . Bates, Coatsworth & Williamson argued Balkanization was observed greatly in West Africa then British East Africa . In the 1960s, countries in
9636-628: The United Kingdom. The "Home Rule" movement for a Scottish Assembly was first taken up in 1853 by the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights , a body close to the Conservative Party . A key element in this movement was the comparison with Ireland. The original movement broadened its political appeal and soon began to receive Liberal Party backing. In 1885, the post of Secretary for Scotland and
9768-704: The Western HQ in Salonika, and the Vardar HQ in Skopje , against the Bulgarians, the Greeks and the Serbians respectively. Most of their available forces were allocated to these fronts. Smaller independent units were allocated elsewhere, mostly around heavily fortified cities. Montenegro was the first to declare war on 8 October (25 September O.S.). Its main thrust was towards Shkodra , with secondary operations in
9900-734: The Western-Thracian front, Bulgarian forces, with the help of the Serbian Army, managed to conquer Adrianople , while Greek forces managed to take Ioannina after defeating the Ottomans in the Battle of Bizani . In the joint Serbian-Montenegrin theater of operation, the Montenegrin army besieged and captured the Shkodra , ending the Ottoman presence in Europe west of the Çatalca line after nearly 500 years. The war ended officially with
10032-548: The Young Turkish regime and a series of three revolts in Ottoman held Albania, the Young Turks fell from power after a coup. The Christian Balkan countries were forced to take action and saw this as an opportunity to promote their national agenda by expanding in the territories of the falling empire and liberating their enslaved co-patriots. In order to achieve that, a wide net of treaties was constructed and an alliance
10164-538: The all-important opening round of the war. After the defeat of the Ottoman fleet, the Greek Navy was also free to occupy the islands of the Aegean. General Nikola Ivanov identified the activity of the Greek Navy as the chief factor in the general success of the allies. In January, after a successful coup by young army officers, the Ottoman Empire decided to continue the war. After a failed Ottoman counter-attack in
10296-551: The area as a counterweight to the Serbian nationalistic call to their own Serb subjects in Bosnia , Vojvodina and other parts of the empire. Italy 's primary aim at the time seems to have been the denial of access to the Adriatic Sea to another major sea power. The German Empire , in turn, under the " Drang nach Osten " policy, aspired to turn the Ottoman Empire into its own de facto colony, and thus supported its integrity. In
10428-671: The breakdown of the Federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland as well as the East African High Commission . Splintering into today's nations was a result of the movement towards a closed economy. Countries were adopting antitrade and anti-market policies. Tariff rates were 15% higher than in OECD countries during the 1970s and 1980s. Furthermore, countries took approaches to subsidise their own local industries, but
10560-432: The case for independence and the means through which Scotland might become an independent country. After a protracted period of negotiation, a public debate between Salmond and Better Together leader Alistair Darling was arranged. On the morning before the televised debate, a joint statement, pledging greater devolved powers to Scotland in the event of a "No" vote, was signed by Prime Minister David Cameron (Leader of
10692-644: The city (while the Greeks agreed by mutual treaty to remove their units based in Serres ) and transport them to Dedeağaç (modern Alexandroupolis ), but it left behind a battalion that started fortifying its positions. Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the stretch of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that lay in Greek-occupied territory since Bulgaria controlled the largest part of this railroad towards Thrace. After
10824-491: The common cause to fight the Ottoman Empire. In April 1912 Montenegro and Bulgaria reached an agreement including financial aid to Montenegro in case of war with the Ottoman Empire. A gentlemen's agreement with Greece was reached soon after, as mentioned before. By the end of September a political and military alliance between Montenegro and Serbia was achieved. By the end of September 1912, Bulgaria had formal-written alliances with Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro. A formal alliance
10956-543: The confidence of a majority of the chamber could conceivably be appointed First Minister. All other Ministers are appointed and dismissed by the First Minister, and together they make up the Scottish Government , the executive arm of government. The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all non- reserved matters relating to Scotland, and has a limited power to vary income tax, nicknamed
11088-689: The conflict, had intact armies to strike with and invaded Bulgaria from the north in violation of a peace treaty between the two states. The Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace , regaining Adrianople . In the resulting Treaty of Bucharest , Bulgaria managed to regain most of the territories it had gained in the First Balkan War. However, it was forced to cede the ex-Ottoman south part of Dobruja province to Romania. The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic cleansing , with all parties being responsible for grave atrocities against civilians, and inspired later atrocities including war crimes during
11220-474: The convention was unwilling to discuss Scottish independence as a constitutional option. Arguments against devolution and the Scottish Parliament, levelled mainly by the Conservative Party, were that the Parliament would create a "slippery slope" to Scottish independence and provide the pro-independence Scottish National Party with a route to government. Prime Minister John Major campaigned during
11352-482: The creation of an independent Albania. Every Aegean island belonging to the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Imbros and Tenedos , was handed over to the Greeks, including the island of Crete . Furthermore, all European territory of the Ottoman Empire west of the Enos-Midiya ( Enez - Kıyıköy ) line, was ceded to the Balkan League , but the division of the territory among the League was not to be decided by
11484-417: The danger of encirclement, Constantine realized that his army could no longer continue hostilities. Thus, he agreed to Eleftherios Venizelos ' proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice as had been communicated through Romania. Romania had raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on 10 July (27 June) as it had from 28 (15) June officially warned Bulgaria that it would not remain neutral in
11616-512: The electorate). The Parliament of the United Kingdom subsequently approved the Scotland Act 1998 which created an elected Scottish Parliament with control over most domestic policy. In May 1999, Scotland held its first election for a devolved parliament, and in July 1999, the Scottish Parliament held session for the first time since the previous parliament had been adjourned in 1707, after
11748-531: The end of the operations in Thrace, and confirming Greek concerns, Bulgaria was not satisfied with the territory it controlled in Macedonia and immediately asked Greece to relinquish its control over Thessaloniki and the land north of Pieria , effectively handing over all of Greek Macedonia. These demands, with the Bulgarian refusal to demobilize its army after the Treaty of London had ended the common war against
11880-762: The end, Bulgaria's overreliance on the Russian Empire , a power which had anathemised the Unification of Bulgaria , invited the Ottoman Sultan to reconquer Eastern Rumelia and organised a coup against the Bulgarian Prince only three decades prior and which had watched Ferdinand 's charge towards Istanbul with ill-disguised alarm due to its own long-standing aspirations towards the Turkish Straits, Bulgaria's unwillingness to reach
12012-444: The first step towards a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it. Seeing the omens, Greece and Serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty on 1 June(19 May) 1913. With this treaty, a mutual border was agreed between the two countries, together with an agreement for mutual military and diplomatic support in case of a Bulgarian or/and Austro-Hungarian attack. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia , being well informed, tried to stop
12144-528: The formal union of the two kingdoms in 1707, with the Treaty of Union and subsequent Acts of Union , to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Scottish Jacobite resistance to the union, led by descendants of James II and VII including Bonnie Prince Charlie , continued until 1746. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed by the Acts of Union 1800 , which united the Kingdom of Great Britain and
12276-427: The formerly distinct province of Eastern Rumelia (1885). All three countries, as well as Montenegro , sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia , comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania , Macedonia, and Thrace . The First Balkan War had some main causes, which included: Throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the " Eastern Question " and
12408-577: The idea of independence of Quebec since 80% of the province is francophone. One such project is the Proposal for the Province of Montreal for the establishment of a separate province from Quebec for Montreal's strongly-anglophone and allophone (mother tongue neither English nor French) communities. In January 2007, the growing support for Scottish independence made Chancellor of the Exchequer of
12540-538: The integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted access to the "warm waters" of the Mediterranean from the Black Sea; so, it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign policy and therefore supported Bulgaria and Serbia. Britain wished to deny Russia access to the "warm waters" and supported the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, although it also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case integrity of
12672-482: The interior markets were small in scale. Transport networks were fragmented; regulations on labor and capital flow were increased; price controls were introduced. Between 1960 and 1990, balkanization led to disastrous results. The GDP of these regions were one tenth of OECD countries. Balkanization also resulted in what van de Valle called "typically fairly overvalued exchanged rates" in Africa. Balkanization contributed to what Bates, Coatsworth & Williamson claimed to be
12804-430: The late 19th and early 20th century, Bulgaria and Greece contended for Ottoman Macedonia and Thrace. Ethnic Greeks sought the forced "Hellenization" of ethnic Bulgars, who sought "Bulgarization" of Greeks ( Rise of nationalism ). Both nations sent armed irregulars into Ottoman territory to protect and assist their ethnic kindred. From 1904, there was low-intensity warfare in Macedonia between the Greek and Bulgarian bands and
12936-407: The late 20th and early 21st centuries sought to denaturalize and reclaim 'balkanization'. The term (coined in the early 20th century in the aftermath of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire ) refers to the division of the Balkan peninsula , which was ruled almost entirely by the Ottoman Empire, into a number of smaller states between 1817 and 1912. It came into common use in the immediate aftermath of
13068-488: The negotiations by pushing out Serbian and Greek forces out of several disputed territories without a battle plan or declaration of war, naively thinking that this would be regarded as a mere altercation. Instead, the action gave Serbia and Greece casus belli and kicked off the Second Balkan War . Though the Balkan allies had fought together against the common enemy, that was not enough to overcome their mutual rivalries. In
13200-400: The opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the de jure Ottoman province of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878 (see Bosnian Crisis ). Bulgaria declared independence as it had done in 1878, but this time the independence was internationally recognized. The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan State proclaimed unification with Greece, though the opposition of
13332-501: The original document for the Balkans league, Serbia promised Bulgaria most of Macedonia. But before the first war had come to an end, Serbia (in violation of the previous agreement) and Greece revealed their plan to keep possession of the territories that their forces had occupied. This act prompted the tsar of Bulgaria to invade his allies. The Second Balkan War broke out on 29 (16) June 1913, when Bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in
13464-519: The other four original combatants of the first war. It also faced an attack from Romania from the north. The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Although not involved as a combatant, Austria-Hungary became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples. The war set the stage for the July crisis of 1914 and thus served as a prelude to
13596-658: The planned troops from the Middle East to the Thracian (against the Bulgarian) and to the Macedonian (against the Greeks and Serbians) fronts. According to E.J. Erickson the Greek Navy also played a crucial, albeit indirect role, in the Thracian campaign by neutralizing no less than three Thracian Corps (see First Balkan War , the Bulgarian theater of operations), a significant portion of the Ottoman Army there, in
13728-540: The province of Kosovo ). On 15 August 1909, the Military League , a group of Greek officers, launched a coup. The Military League sought the creation of a new political system and thus summoned the Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos to Athens as its political advisor. Venizelos persuaded King George I to revise the constitution and asked the League to disband in favor of a National Assembly. In March 1910,
13860-598: The revenues” by creating Petroleum Revenue Tax. [1] The Labour Party , led by Harold Wilson, won the October 1974 general election with the very narrow majority of only three seats. Following their election to Parliament, the SNP MPs pressed for the creation of a Scottish Assembly: a viewpoint which was given added credibility by the conclusions of the Kilbrandon Commission. However, opponents demanded that
13992-421: The signing of the Treaty of London on 30 May 1913. The Second Balkan War began on 16 June 1913, when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its loss of Macedonia , attacked its former Balkan League allies. The combined forces of Serbian and Greek armies, with their superior numbers repelled the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked Bulgaria by invading it from the west and the south. Romania , having taken no part in
14124-482: The start of a rapid decolonisation in Africa and the end of the British Empire . The UK had already suffered the international humiliation of the 1956 Suez Crisis , which showed that it was no longer the superpower it had been before World War II . For many in Scotland, this served to undermine one of the principal raisons d'être for the United Kingdom and also symbolised the end of popular imperialism and
14256-550: The subsequent secession of Balkan nations following the Ottoman Empire's disintegration in the nineteenth century. After the Second World War (1939–1945), the term underwent significant development, expanding beyond its original context to encompass diverse fields such as linguistics, demography, information technology, gastronomy, and more. This expansion extended its descriptive reach to various phenomena, often with pejorative connotations. In response, critical scholars in
14388-512: The surge in Scottish National Party popularity, the document came to light only in 2005, when the SNP obtained the report under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 . McCrone himself has rejected this claim, the main thrust of this myth was to point out nothing had been done to secure tax revenues from the impending arrival of oil. “Mercifully,” he recalled, “the Labour government set about securing
14520-419: The term is often used by opponents of secessionism to highlight potential dangers. The Balkan peninsula is seen as an example of shatter belts in geopolitics . Coined in the early 20th century, the term "Balkanization" traces its origins to the depiction of events during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and the First World War (1914–1918). It did not emerge during the gradual secession of Balkan nations from
14652-451: The total electorate should vote in favour in order to make it valid. But the turnout was only 63.6%, so only 32.9% of the electorate voted "Yes". The Scotland Act 1978 was consequently repealed in March 1979 by a vote of 301–206 in Parliament. In the wake of the referendum, the supporters of the bill conducted a protest campaign under the slogan "Scotland said yes". They said that the 40% rule
14784-515: The two countries as Bulgarian by rights. Before the war, Serbia had relinquished its claim to the territory east of the Ohrid - Kriva Palanka line in favour of Bulgaria (the ‘Uncontested Zone’ ), while the future of some 11,000 square km of territory, forming the northwestern corner of geographic region of Macedonia (the ‘Contested Zone’ ), was to be decided by the Russian Emperor , who
14916-603: The union , the Financial Times indicates that the Internal Market Act may serve to further the cause of independence: An example of what not to do was the government’s Internal Market Act, in which London retook control of structural funds previously disbursed by the EU. This view was mirrored by the Scottish Government in a report published in March 2021, which states that the act is "radically undermining
15048-499: The upcoming conflict on 8 June, by sending an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. But Bulgaria, by making the acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in effect denied any discussion, causing Russia to repudiate its alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian military convention signed 31 May 1902). The Serbs and
15180-486: The verdict of the people, and I call on all of Scotland to follow suit in accepting the democratic verdict". In 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU in the Brexit referendum, however Scotland voted to remain by 62% to 38%. Leading pro-independence figures suggested a second independence referendum. For example, First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon said that she was looking at all options to "secure our place in
15312-422: The war declaration on 4/17 of October 1912. The three Slavic allies (Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro) had laid out extensive plans to coordinate their war efforts, in continuation of their secret prewar settlements and under close Russian supervision (Greece was not included). Serbia and Montenegro would attack in the theater of Sanjak, Bulgaria, and Serbia in Macedonia and Thrace. The Ottoman Empire's situation
15444-619: The years of the Conservative government after 1979, the Campaign for a Scottish Assembly was established, eventually publishing the Claim of Right 1989 . This led to the Scottish Constitutional Convention . The convention promoted consensus on devolution on a cross-party basis, though the Conservative Party refused to co-operate and the Scottish National Party withdrew from the discussions when it became clear that
15576-488: Was "fair, legal and decisive". Negotiations continued between the two governments until October 2012, when the Edinburgh Agreement was reached. The Scottish Independence Referendum (Franchise) Act 2013 was passed by the Scottish Parliament on 27 June 2013 and received Royal Assent on 7 August 2013. On 15 November 2013, the Scottish Government published Scotland's Future , a 670-page white paper laying out
15708-480: Was Senior Arbitrary and Guarantor of the alliance. Assured by the clauses of the Treaty that it would receive what it considered its fair share of Macedonia , Bulgaria sent almost all of its troops to the Thracian front, which was expected to, and eventually did indeed, decide the outcome of the war. At the same time, Serbia pushed into Kosovo and northern Macedonia. As the establishment of an independent Albanian state, brokered by Italy and Austria-Hungary, deprived
15840-519: Was also signed between Serbia and Montenegro, while Greco-Montenegrin and Greco-Serbian agreements were basically oral "gentlemen's agreements". All these completed the formation of the Balkan League. At that time, the Balkan states had been able to maintain armies that were both numerous, in relation to each country's population, and eager to act, being inspired by the idea that they would free enslaved parts of their homeland. The Bulgarian Army
15972-516: Was continued for 11 days, between 29 July and 9 August over 20 km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion. The Greek king, seeing that the units he fought were from the Serbian front, tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack, as the front ahead of them was now thinner, but the Serbs declined. By then, news came of the Romanian advance toward Sofia and its imminent fall. Facing
16104-715: Was difficult. Its population of about 26 million people provided a massive pool of manpower, but three-quarters of the population lived in the Asian part of the Empire. Reinforcements had to come from Asia mainly by sea, which depended on the result of battles between the Turkish and Greek navies in the Aegean. With the outbreak of the war, the Ottoman Empire activated three Army HQs: the Thracian HQ in Constantinople ,
16236-399: Was eroded by several by-election losses, and the government became increasingly unpopular. Deals were made with the SNP and Plaid Cymru to hold referendums on devolution in exchange for their support, helping to prolong the government's life. The result of the referendum in Scotland was a narrow majority in favour of devolution (52% to 48%), but a condition of the referendum was that 40% of
16368-445: Was finally signed on 16/29 of May 1912, without stipulating any specific division of Ottoman territories. In summer 1912, Greece proceeded on making "gentlemen's agreements" with Serbia and Montenegro. Despite the fact that a draft of the alliance pact with Serbia was submitted on 22 of October, a formal pact was never signed due to the outbreak of the war. As a result, Greece did not have any territorial or other commitments, other than
16500-485: Was first invoked at that time and remained active through to the 16th century. The Wars of Scottish Independence ended in a renewed kingdom under Robert the Bruce (crowned 1306), whose grandson Robert II of Scotland was the first Scottish king of the House of Stuart . From 1603 Scotland and England shared the same monarch in a personal union when James VI of Scotland was declared King of England and Scotland in what
16632-597: Was formed. The negotiation among the Balkan states' governments started in the latter part of 1911 and was all conducted in secret. The treaties and military conventions were published in French translations after the Balkan Wars on 24–26 of November in Le Matin, Paris, France In April 1911, Greek PM Eleutherios Venizelos ’ attempt to reach an agreement with the Bulgarian PM and form a defensive alliance against
16764-623: Was known as the Union of the Crowns . After James II and VII was deposed in 1688 amid Catholic-Protestant disputes, and as the line of Protestant Stuarts showed signs of failing (as indeed occurred in 1714), English fears that Scotland would select a different monarch, potentially causing conflict within Great Britain, and the bankruptcy of many Scottish nobles through the Darien scheme led to
16896-526: Was needed in the Balkan League for its navy and its capability to dominate the Aegean Sea , cutting off the Ottoman Armies from reinforcements. On 13 ( O.S. )/26 of September 1912, the Ottoman mobilization in Thrace forced Serbia and Bulgaria to act and order their own mobilization. On 17/30 of September Greece also ordered mobilization. On 25 of September/8 of October, Montenegro declared war on
17028-512: Was recorded as 5,100,000 in the 1951 UK Census ). The covenant was ignored by the main political parties. In 1950 the Stone of Destiny was removed from Westminster Abbey by a group of Scottish nationalist students. The question of full independence, or the less controversial home rule , did not re-enter the political mainstream until 1960, after the famous Wind of Change speech by Conservative Prime Minister Harold Macmillan . This speech marked
17160-659: Was the leading army of the coalition. It was a well-trained and fully equipped army, capable of facing the Imperial Army. It was suggested that the bulk of the Bulgarian Army would be in the Thracian front, as it was expected that the front near the Ottoman Capital would be the most crucial one. The Serbian Army would act on the Macedonian front, as the Greek Army were thought to be powerless, but Greece
17292-423: Was then tabled by the Conservatives and supported by the SNP, the Liberals and Ulster Unionists . It passed by one vote on 28 March 1979, forcing the May 1979 general election , which was won by the Conservatives led by Margaret Thatcher . Prime Minister Callaghan described the decision of the SNP to bring down the Labour government as " turkeys voting for Christmas ". The SNP group was reduced from 11 MPs to 2 at
17424-424: Was undemocratic and that the referendum results justified the establishment of the assembly. Campaigners for a "No" vote countered that voters had been told before the referendum that failing to vote was as good as a "No". It was therefore incorrect to conclude that the relatively low turnout was entirely due to voter apathy . In protest, the SNP withdrew their support from the government. A motion of no confidence
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