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40-483: The term baluster shaft is used to describe forms such as a candlestick, upright furniture support, and the stem of a brass chandelier. The term banister (also bannister) refers to a baluster or to the system of balusters and handrail of a stairway. It may be used to include its supporting structures, such as a supporting newel post. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , "baluster"

80-700: A consistent height above walking surfaces, stair nosing, and ramp surfaces. When children are the principal users in a building or facility (e.g., elementary schools), a second set of handrails at an appropriate height can assist them and aid in preventing accidents. A maximum height of 28 inches measured to the top of the gripping surface from the ramp surface or stair nosing. Sufficient vertical clearance between upper and lower handrails, 9 inches minimum, should be provided to help prevent entrapment. Top of gripping surfaces of handrails shall be between 34 and 38 inches (864 and 965 mm) vertically above walking surfaces, stair nosings, and ramp surfaces. Handrails shall be at

120-777: A consistent height above walking surfaces, stair nosings, and ramp surfaces. When children are the principal users in a building or facility (e.g., elementary schools), a second set of handrails at an appropriate height can assist them and aid in preventing accidents. A maximum height of 28 inches (711 mm) measured to the top of the gripping surface from the ramp surface or stair nosing is recommended for handrails designed for children. Sufficient vertical clearance between upper and lower handrails, 9 inches (229 mm) minimum, should be provided to help prevent entrapment. Handrails are available in several different varieties including wooden/timber , stainless steel , brass , or aluminium . Some varieties are more hard-wearing than others, and

160-504: A cushionlike torus or a concave ring, and the other a simple vase shape, whose employment by Michelangelo at the Campidoglio steps ( c 1546), noted by Wittkower, was preceded by very early vasiform balusters in a balustrade round the drum of Santa Maria delle Grazie ( c 1482), and railings in the cathedrals of Aquileia ( c 1495) and Parma , in the cortile of San Damaso, Vatican, and Antonio da Sangallo 's crowning balustrade on

200-487: A development of the 18th century in Great Britain (see Coade stone ), and cast iron balusters a development largely of the 1840s. As balusters and balustrades have evolved, they can now be made from various materials with a few popular choices being timber, glass and stainless steel. The baluster, being a turned structure , tends to follow design precedents that were set in woodworking and ceramic practices, where

240-488: A lathe that can be adapted to many operations and that is not too large to be moved from one work site to another. The engine lathe is ideally suited for this purpose. A trained operator can accomplish more machining jobs with the engine lathe than with any other machine tool. Turret lathes and special purpose lathes are usually used in production or job shops for mass production or specialized parts, while basic engine lathes are usually used for any type of lathe work. Over

280-468: A lathe, considered to be the oldest of machine tools, and can be of different types such as straight turning , taper turning , profiling or external grooving . Those types of turning processes can produce various shapes of materials such as straight , conical , curved , or grooved workpieces. In general, turning uses simple single-point cutting tools. Each group of workpiece materials has an optimum set of tool angles that have been developed through

320-607: A window in Saxon architecture. In the south transept of the Abbey in St Albans , England, are some of these shafts, supposed to have been taken from the old Saxon church. Norman bases and capitals have been added, together with plain cylindrical Norman shafts. Balusters are normally separated by at least the same measurement as the size of the square bottom section. Placing balusters too far apart diminishes their aesthetic appeal, and

360-451: A “Turned Part” or “Machined Component”. Turning operations are carried out on a lathe machine which can be manually or CNC operated. Turning specific operations include: The general process of turning involves rotating a part while a single-point cutting tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation. Turning can be done on the external surface of the part as well as the internal surface (the process known as boring ). The starting material

400-454: Is called " boring ". Thus the phrase "turning and boring" categorizes the larger family of processes known as lathing. The cutting of faces on the workpiece, whether with a turning or boring tool, is called "facing", and may be lumped into either category as a subset. Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe , which frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Today

440-404: Is defined as either a circular cross section with an outside diameter of 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (32 mm) minimum and 2 inches (51 mm) maximum or a non-circular cross section with a perimeter dimension of 4 inches (102 mm) minimum and 6 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (159 mm) maximum and a cross section dimension of 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (57 mm)) maximum. In addition,

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480-630: Is derived through the French : balustre , from Italian : balaustro , from balaustra , "pomegranate flower" [from a resemblance to the swelling form of the half-open flower ( illustration, below right )], from Latin balaustrium , from Greek βαλαύστριον ( balaustrion ). The earliest examples of balusters are those shown in the bas-reliefs representing the Assyrian palaces, where they were employed as functional window balustrades and apparently had Ionic capitals. As an architectural element alone

520-430: Is generally a workpiece generated by other processes such as casting , forging , extrusion , or drawing . Facing in the context of turning work involves moving the cutting tool at right angles to the axis of rotation of the rotating workpiece. This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if one is fitted, as distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is frequently the first operation performed in

560-437: Is not less than 1 + 3 ⁄ 4 inches (45 mm) below the tallest portion of the profile. The minimum width of the handrail above the recess shall be 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (32 mm) to a maximum of 2 + 3 ⁄ 4 inches (70 mm). Edges shall have a minimum radius of 0.01 inches (0.25 mm). Handrails are located at a height between 34 and 38 inches (864 and 965 mm). In areas where children are

600-525: Is set between 0.9 and 1 metre ( 35 + 3 ⁄ 8 and 39 + 3 ⁄ 8  in). Various model codes—The International Code Council (ICC ) and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA )—and accessibility standards—ANSI A117.1 and the Americans With Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible Design (ADASAD)—refer to handrail dimensions. Current versions of these codes and standards now agree that handrail

640-494: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) require that the distance between the wall and handrail be a minimum of 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (57 mm). The 1992 Americans With Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) stated that there was to be an absolute dimension of 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm) between a handrail and a wall. This was actually a "grab bar" dimension which

680-527: The Red Fort of Agra and Delhi , in the early seventeenth century. Foliate baluster columns with naturalistic foliate capitals, unexampled in previous Indo-Islamic architecture according to Ebba Koch , rapidly became one of the most widely used forms of supporting shaft in Northern and Central India in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The modern term baluster shaft is applied to the shaft dividing

720-540: The Santa Casa at Loreto installed in 1535, and liberally in his model for the Basilica of Saint Peter . Because of its low center of gravity , this "vase-baluster" may be given the modern term "dropped baluster". Balusters may be made of carved stone , cast stone , plaster , polymer , polyurethane / polystyrene , polyvinyl chloride (PVC), precast concrete , wood , or wrought iron . Cast-stone balusters were

760-511: The turner's lathe and the potter's wheel are ancient tools. The profile a baluster takes is often diagnostic of a particular style of architecture or furniture, and may offer a rough guide to date of a design, though not of a particular example. Some complicated Mannerist baluster forms can be read as a vase set upon another vase. The high shoulders and bold, rhythmic shapes of the Baroque vase and baluster forms are distinctly different from

800-524: The International Residential Code (IRC) includes a definition of a "Type II" handrail that allows for handrail with a perimeter dimension greater than 6 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (159 mm). The IRC and residential portion of the 2009 IBC define Type II handrail as follows: Type II. Handrails with a perimeter greater than 6 + 1 ⁄ 4 inches (159 mm) shall provide a graspable finger recess area on both sides of

840-672: The balustrade did not seem to have been known to either the Greeks or the Romans , but baluster forms are familiar in the legs of chairs and tables represented in Roman bas-reliefs, where the original legs or the models for cast bronze ones were shaped on the lathe, or in Antique marble candelabra, formed as a series of stacked bulbous and disc-shaped elements, both kinds of sources familiar to Quattrocento designers. The application to architecture

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880-503: The balustrade on the terrace and stairs at the Medici villa at Poggio a Caiano ( c 1480), and used balustrades in his reconstructions of antique structures. Sangallo passed the motif to Bramante (his Tempietto , 1502) and Michelangelo , through whom balustrades gained wide currency in the 16th century. Wittkower distinguished two types, one symmetrical in profile that inverted one bulbous vase-shape over another, separating them with

920-556: The cost can vary depending on the style you choose. You can also choose various fixings to allow for a more modern/sleek look. Turning Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool , typically a non-rotary tool bit , describes a helix toolpath by moving more or less linearly while the workpiece rotates . Usually the term "turning" is reserved for the generation of external surfaces by this cutting action, whereas this same essential cutting action when applied to internal surfaces (holes, of one kind or another)

960-638: The face of the part (face grooving or trepanning). Non-specific operations include: A lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping pieces of metal, wood, or other materials by causing the workpiece to be held and rotated by the lathe while a tool bit is advanced into the work causing the cutting action. Lathes can be divided into three types for easy identification: engine lathe , turret lathe , and special purpose lathes . Some smaller ones are bench mounted and semi-portable. The larger lathes are floor mounted and may require special transportation if they must be moved. Field and maintenance shops generally use

1000-431: The horizontal bracket arm. There is an allowance however for variations in the handrail size—for every 1 ⁄ 2 inch (13 mm) of additional perimeter dimension over 4 inches (102 mm), 1 ⁄ 8 inch (3.2 mm) may be subtracted from the clearance requirement. Handrails are to support a continuous load of 50 pounds per foot (74 kg/m) or a concentrated load of 200 pounds (91 kg) applied at

1040-921: The molds. Handrail A handrail is a rail that is designed to be grasped by the hand so as to provide safety or support. In Britain , handrails are referred to as banisters . Handrails are commonly used while ascending or descending stairways and escalators in order to prevent injurious falls, and to provide bodily support in bathrooms or similar areas. Handrails are typically supported by balusters or attached to walls. Similar items not covered in this article include bathroom handrails —which help to prevent falls on slippery, wet floors—other grab bars , used, for instance, in ships' galleys , and barres , which serve as training aids for ballet dancers. Guard rails and balustrades line drop-offs and other dangerous areas, keeping people and vehicles out. British Standard and British Standard Code of Practice are harmonized to European Normal (EN) series. Handrail height

1080-426: The most common type of such automation is computer numerical control , better known as CNC. (CNC is also commonly used with many other types of machining besides turning.) When turning, the workpiece (a piece of relatively rigid material such as wood, metal, plastic, or stone) is rotated and a cutting tool is traversed along 1, 2, or 3 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on

1120-412: The outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring ) to produce tubular components to various geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes could even be used to produce complex geometric figures, even the platonic solids ; although since the advent of CNC it has become unusual to use non-computerized toolpath control for this purpose. The turning processes are typically carried out on

1160-503: The principal users of a building or facility, the 2010 ADASAD recommends that a second set of handrails at a maximum height of 28 inches (711 mm) measured to the top of the gripping surface from the ramp surface or stair nosing can assist in preventing accidents. The distance between the wall and handrail gripping surface is also governed by local code with the most common requirement being 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm) minimum. The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) and

1200-471: The production of the workpiece, and often the last—hence the phrase "ending up". This process, also called parting off or cutoff , is used to create deep grooves which will remove a completed or part-complete component from its parent stock. Grooving is like parting, except that grooves are cut to a specific depth instead of severing a completed/part-complete component from the stock. Grooving can be performed on internal and external surfaces, as well as on

1240-407: The profile. The finger recess shall begin within a distance of 3 ⁄ 4 inch (19 mm) measured vertically from the tallest portion of the profile and achieve a depth of at least 5 ⁄ 16 inch (8 mm) within 7 ⁄ 8 inch (22 mm) below the widest portion of the profile. This required depth shall continue for at least 3 ⁄ 8 inch (10 mm) to a level that

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1280-446: The resulting surface of a workpiece in machining operations. Different types of angle such as rake angle , side rake angle , cutting-edge angle , relief angle , nose radius exist and may be different with respect to the workpiece. Also, there are many shapes of single-point cutting tools, such as V-shaped and Square. Usually, a special toolholder is used to hold the cutting tool firmly during operation. The relative forces in

1320-666: The sixteenth through the seventeenth centuries. Modern baluster design is also in use for example in designs influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement in a 1905 row of houses in Etchingham Park Road Finchley London England. Outside Europe, the baluster column appeared as a new motif in Mughal architecture , introduced in Shah Jahan 's interventions in two of the three great fortress-palaces,

1360-699: The sober baluster forms of Neoclassicism , which look to other precedents, like Greek amphoras . The distinctive twist-turned designs of balusters in oak and walnut English and Dutch seventeenth-century furniture, which took as their prototype the Solomonic column that was given prominence by Bernini , fell out of style after the 1710s. Once it had been taken from the lathe, a turned wood baluster could be split and applied to an architectural surface, or to one in which architectonic themes were more freely treated, as on cabinets made in Italy, Spain and Northern Europe from

1400-437: The structural integrity of the balustrade they form. Balustrades normally terminate in heavy newel posts, columns, and building walls for structural support. Balusters may be formed in several ways. Wood and stone can be shaped on the lathe, wood can be cut from square or rectangular section boards, while concrete, plaster, iron, and plastics are usually formed by molding and casting. Turned patterns or old examples are used for

1440-710: The top of the handrail. As handrails come in different materials, the strengths can vary. From timber to stainless steel, it is best to pick a handrail that will be right for the area. Stainless steel will be stronger and more durable outside, whereas timber can be just as strong but less durable outside. ADA Handrail height requirements are issued to create a safe enjoyable space to enjoy for everyone. The ADA height of handrail requirements that will primarily be used by children have their own unique requirements. The top of gripping surfaces of handrails shall be 34 inches minimum and 38 inches maximum vertically above walking surfaces, stair nosing, and ramp surfaces. Handrails shall be at

1480-430: The years, in the manufacturing industry, with the improvement of the difficulty of product processing, the emergence of CNC turning milling compound centers, which maintains the characteristics of lathe machining, but also increased the function of the milling machine , the combination of the two to improve production efficiency. The various angles, shapes, and sizes of a single-point cutting tool have direct relation to

1520-415: The years. The bits of waste metal from turning operations are known as chips (North America), or swarf (Britain). In some areas they may be known as turnings . The tool's axes of movement may be literally a straight line, or they may be along some set of curves or angles, but they are essentially linear (in the non mathematical sense). A component that is subject to turning operations can be termed as

1560-475: Was a feature of the early Renaissance architecture : late fifteenth-century examples are found in the balconies of palaces at Venice and Verona . These quattrocento balustrades are likely to be following yet-unidentified Gothic precedents . They form balustrades of colonettes as an alternative to miniature arcading. Rudolf Wittkower withheld judgement as to the inventor of the baluster and credited Giuliano da Sangallo with using it consistently as early as

1600-438: Was part of the 1986 ANSI A117.1. ANSI changed the notation to 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm) minimum in 1990. This was not corrected in 2010 with the approval of the new ADASAD which now calls for a 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm) minimum clearance. Codes also generally require that there be a 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm) clearance between the underside of the handrail and any obstruction—including

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