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88-458: The Bamum kingdom was originally founded by the older brother of the Tikar royal dynasty. The founding king (called a "fon" or "mfon") was Nchare, a conqueror reputed to have crushed some 18 rulers. King Nchare founded the capital Foumban , then called Mfomben. This first group of Tikar emigrants conquerors absorbed the language and customs of their new subjects and were from then on known as Mbum. It

176-717: A are a branch of the Southern Bantoid languages spoken in the Western High Plateau of Cameroon and some parts of Taraba state , Nigeria . One of the few African ethnic groups to practice a monotheistic traditional religion, the Tikar refer to God the Creator by the name Nyuy. They also have an extensive spiritual system of ancestral reverence . The Tikar or Grassfields peoples make up approximately 9.9% of Cameroon's population. This could be due to

264-486: A cultural marker of the Tikar and Grassfields peoples, creating a unique style that made them easily distinguishable from other peoples outside of the region. These intricate designs is still used today for clothing, architecture, art and to demarcate royal ritual spaces. The Tikar are renowned for their highly detailed masks. Their artistry put the Tikar people at the center of trade and politics in Cameroon and made them

352-573: A decision that would affect Bamun culture long after Njoyua's death. He invented the Bamum script so that his people could record Bamum's history. In 1910, Njoya had a school constructed where the script was taught. Germans were allowed to set up the Basel Mission at the capital of and construction was undertaken to build a temple. A school was built, staffed by missionaries who taught in German and

440-502: A force to reckoned with in the eyes of neighboring ethnic groups, especially considering they are thought to be the only people in the region who were skilled in iron-working . Their masks are often characterized by their strongly-defined noses and large eyes. They are also known for their beautifully decorated brass pipes. Along with the Bamileke people, the Tikar are also known for their intricate elephant masks, which became renowned in

528-429: A governing power wins consent from those it subjugates; it is carried in cultural, political, and economic forms, in non-discursive as well as in theoretical utterances" (Goheen 1996:12). Hegemony is a discourse established in the favor of the government or any given society to control their population. Therefore, the government or the leaders establish laws to back up with this ideology. Hence, it generated inequality among

616-444: A kingdom. Upon their arrival, they were perceived as "Sudanese conquerors," transforming northern-central Cameroon and earning recognition for their ironmaking expertise. Professor and social anthropologist David Zeitlyn analyzed Tikar origin theories proposed by various historians, including Eldridge Mohammadou, who researched the history of Central Cameroon and Tikar-speaking groups. Zeitlyn noted that "the main question at issue

704-557: A new Fon. It is also responsible for replacing Fais and Shufais after the death of the incumbent. Members of the royal families (except the Fons) may not become members of the Nwerong. The "Ngiri" resembles the Nwerong, but is only for princes. New Fons are selected from a group of eligible princes by a system kept secret from those eligible, thus eliminating a possible source of corruption. The princes are called Wontho and regularly meet in

792-555: A new class of elites as it is only the better-educated women from families with wealth that can change power and labor dynamics in a household. In Men Own the Fields, Women Own the Crops, Miriam Goheen elaborated on the gender inequality in Nso community. This gender inequality is established by the ideology of hegemony among the Nso people. According to Gramsci, "hegemony is the ways in which

880-613: A nomadic people, some oral traditions trace the origin of the Tikar people to the Nile River Valley in present-day Sudan . According to the Bamenda City Council the Tikari groups migrated from Northern Nigeria to settle in the highlands of western Cameroon. Such ethnic groups were referred to in the 1969 official statistics as "Semi-Bantus" and "Sudanese Negroes." They speak Grassfields languages which are

968-518: A population related to the Amhara and 50% from a population related to the Tikari (consistent with TreeMix results with three migration events)." A 2010 study showed that the Tikar are a genetic outlier to peoples of Nigeria's Cross River region , Igboland and Ghana , showing significant differences. Similarly, a 2023 study found that self-identified Tikar who live in the Adamawa region and speak

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1056-657: A retaliation by the Nso who attacked the expedition camp with about 1200 men. Having been warned of the planned attacked, they burnt down the palace and moved the camp. The early contact between Nso and the Europeans was marked by a succession of revolt and resistance that were ultimately all defeated by the Europeans. Once the defeated Nso surrendered to the Germans, part of the terms were to supply indigenous labor for coastal work and to build roads for their new government elites. A new system of taxation, administration, and labor

1144-408: A series of violent battles for the throne at Rifum. Ultimately, his son Mveing ascended to the throne, ruling until 1413. However, many believed that Tinki’s other son, Nchare Yen, was the rightful heir. In this version, Nchare Yen, along with his siblings Mbe (also called Morunta) and Ngonnso (or Nguonso), fled Rifum fearing for their lives. The siblings parted ways at Mbam: Mbe traveled east to found

1232-459: Is also no evidence to disprove it. These opposing views, supported by oral traditions and the overall uncertainty of Tikar origins, underscore the need for further exploration. Eldridge Mohammadou hypothesized that Tikar kingdoms were established by invaders from the Bare-Chamba group, who overthrew local Mbum rulers in the 18th century. According to him, the term Tikar originally referred to

1320-515: Is believed that Chamba migrations from the Tikar Plain in the southern part of the western Adamawa Plateau resulted in the kingdom's foundation. During the 18th century, the kingdom faced the threat of invasion from the north by Fulani and Chamba warriors. By the end of the century, Bamum had perhaps 10,000-12,000 within its domain. The history and customs of the Bamum list ten kings between

1408-469: Is largely unrecorded." -Molefi Kete Asante Much of Tikar oral tradition speaks of their journey to flee the spread of Islam . After they settled in Cameroon, the Tikar people soon found themselves fleeing northern Cameroon for Adamawa to avoid forced-conversion to by Muslim Fulani invaders, who moved southward into Cameroon to take advantage of the lucrative, west-central trade route. The Tikar then migrated southward to what would become known as

1496-419: Is not a farmer is marginalized by the society especially, by the women. Moreover, regardless of the women's power as farmers and the "backbone of the country", they are not allowed into the council of the men. This distinction is made because the Nso men considered their women as inadequate to reason. "Women, say the men, should always listen only to the man. They cannot reason correctly because their hearts get in

1584-449: Is one of the largest tribes of Cameroon. The Fon is the traditional ruler. He is both the head of the traditional government and the chief religious authority in charge of keeping the ancestors happy. The Fon is supported in his duties by the seven notables called Vibais . These Vibais are Shufais , whose positions are determined by rather intricate history. These include Shufai Ndzendzev, Tahnkum, Doh, Ruun, Tsenlah, Lun and Yuwar. Over

1672-630: Is prevalent in Central and East Africa, and the Canary Islands. Haplogroup L2a1* was also found amongst Central African people, including the Tikar people of Cameroon and the Bubi people of Bioko Island . A 2023 study of twelve indigenous African populations across Central, Eastern , and Southern Africa uncovered genomic variants that researchers used to reconstruct admixture events and phylogenetic relationships. The results revealed that

1760-601: Is said to have left her parents’ kingdom, traveling to the Adamawa Region, where she established the Kingdom of Tinkala. This is recognized as the first official Tikar fondom (dynasty), and she is believed to have ruled the Tikar people as Fon from 1201 to 1246. In the late 14th century, two Tikar brothers, Tinki and Guié, founded two autonomous Tikar kingdoms: the Kingdom of Bankim (also called Kimi) at Rifum, and

1848-470: Is something that would change with the end of the precolonial era. Goheen clearly states that gender is at stake in the complex historical process especially in the tenure systems of land, external, internal politics, and marriage systems. While taking a look at the resistance of women to traditional patterns of marriage Goheen tosses a question on whether this changes the equilibrium of power between two sexes. It also questions whether this resistance may lead to

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1936-452: Is the origin of the founders of the dynasties and the palace institutions of the different Tikar-speaking groups. How much credit is to be given to claims of Mbum origin? To answer this, a variety of evidence must be considered, including oral tradition and historical linguistics." While some researchers argue there is no evidence that the Tikar ever lived along the Nile, others contend that there

2024-682: The Bakongo people of Democratic Republic of Congo , Bantu ethnic groups in Kenya , the Himba people and Damara people of Namibia , and the Eland Cave Bay remains in South Africa , which are believed to be more than 3,000 years old. Through DNA testing with African Ancestry, Inc., founded by geneticist Dr. Rick Kittles and entrepreneur Dr. Gina Paige, people of African descent across

2112-530: The Far North Region of Cameroon, the Mbum ancestors of the Tikar people were ruled by Nya Sana. Little is known about his reign, but oral accounts state that a royal lineage emerged from Nya Sana, eventually producing Took Gokor. Another Mbum Fon (king) and Yesum or Yelaa (queen consort) are credited with founding the Kingdom of Nganha. Their daughter, Princess Wou-Ten (also called Betaka or Belaka),

2200-579: The Fulani leader Hamman Sambo in the 1820s, fortifying the capital with a trench that stopped the Fulani horsemen. He was the founder of the emblem of the Bamun people, characteristic of their capabilities to fight in two fronts and win both at the same time. He represented the Bamun people by a snake with two heads known as "Ngnwe peh tu." The Bamun kingdom voluntarily became part of German Kamerun in 1884 during

2288-542: The Hausa as royal cloth. This royal cloth was called Ntieya, and Hausa craftsmen were kept at palace workshops to supply nobles and teach the art of dyeing. Tikar The Tikar , more commonly referred to as Graffi and formally known as Tikari, Tigar, Tigari, and Tigre throughout their history are a Central African ethnic group in Cameroon . They are known to be great artists , artisans and storytellers . Once

2376-402: The Kingdom of Ngambé-Tikar . These lineages gave rise to Tikar princes and princesses who embarked on significant migrations, creating new dynasties. In the first wave of migrations, Prince Ncharé (also called Njáré) founded the Kingdom of Bamum , Prince Doundje established the Kingdom of Nditam (also called Bandam) and ruled alongside Queen Mother Nduingnyi, Prince Kpo departed Nditam to found

2464-638: The Niger-Congo language family . The Tikar language (also called Tigé, Tigré or Tikari) has four regional dialects, including Túmú , which spoken in Bankim and Nditam. Linguist Roger Blench stated that the Tikar language and other Bantuoid languages belong to a branch of the Niger-Congo family related to but distinct from Bantu, and do not have a classical Bantu noun-class system . Genetic testing found that many Tikar belong to Haplogroup L3e , which

2552-801: The United States , South America and the Caribbean have been able to trace their lineages to the Tikar people of Cameroon. Genetic testing showed that the descendants of these stolen people of the Tikar- Pygmy cluster translocated the mtdna Haplogroup L3 to the Americas when they were forcibly taken. As a result, L3 is fairly common in the United States and Brazil today. The Tikar are an artistically and culturally significant people. The design of Toghu and Ndop cloth print became

2640-637: The 18th and 19th centuries, the Tikar people suffered devastating losses due to the Atlantic slave trade. Chamba and Fulani slave traffickers, drawn by the Tikar’s prosperous iron-working and mask-making industries, targeted the Tikar population. While many enslaved Cameroonians and Nigerians were shipped from the Bight of Biafra, significant numbers of Tikar and Duala were sold upriver to Sierra Leone and downriver to Angola . From there, they were transported to

2728-748: The Allies invaded German Kamerun as part of the West African campaign . Fumban was captured by the British under Colonel Gorges in December 1915, and Gorges included a first-hand account of the people and their capital in his book. Gorges described Njoya as being understandably "a trifle nervous" when they first met but accepted British rule once he was reassured that no harm would come to him or his people. In 1918, Germany's colonial possessions including Kamerun were divided between Great Britain and France, and

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2816-507: The Americas. Records indicate that Tikar captives constituted a significant proportion of enslaved Cameroonians brought to the Americas, contributing to the steep decline of the Tikar population in Africa. Despite this, the remaining Tikar preserved their heritage through oral tradition and sustained their cultural practices. An alternate account suggests that Chief Tinki eventually became Fon and ruled until his death in 1387, which triggered

2904-488: The Bamum history diverges significantly from that of Claude Tardits, who argued that the Bamum resulted from a gradual process of cultural and political integration rather than a sudden conquest. Zeitlyn compared Mohammadou’s conclusions with those of Jean Hurault, who attributed regional change primarily to the influence of the Fulbe, rather than the Bare-Chamba. According to Mbum oral tradition, after migrating and settling in

2992-548: The Crops: Gender and Power in the Cameroon Grasslands . The book discusses the struggle over power that existed in the Nso chiefdom and the colonial / post-colonial state amongst the sexes through a socio-historic lens for deeper analysis. In pre-colonial Nso culture the division of labor broke down along gender and community lines, whereby, like Goheen's title states, men owned the fields while women owned

3080-699: The German explorer Dr Eugen Zintgraff made the first direct European contact with the Bafut in April 1889. Account of the first contact between the Nso and the German is distilled from oral retellings of the Nso elders and German reports, which are currently housed at the National Archives in Yaounde. The first contact involved eight to ten Europeans of the expeditionary force of Lt Col Von Pavel from January 1901 to 1902. They marched from Babungo and on January 12

3168-418: The Germans were invited in the Nso manjong , warrior lodge, they saw many skulls hanging on rails and assumed that the Nso people were cannibals. Hostilities began between October and March with the arrival of a new expedition that was well armed. It was reported that this new group severely beat a man and left him for dead, and also hit a lineage elderly with the butt of a gun. These aggressive actions prompted

3256-544: The Kingdom of Nditam at Bandam, while Ngonnso went west to establish the Nso Kingdom at Kumbo. Fon Nchare Yen established the Kingdom of Bamum at Foumban in the late 14th or early 15th century. According to King Idrissou (Ibrahim) Mborou Njoya, a later Bamum ruler named Manju bestowed the Bamum people with their name. As the kingdom expanded, Foumban became its capital, and the Bamum Kingdom emerged as one of

3344-440: The Kingdom of Ngoumé, Prince G’Batteu created the Kingdom of Gâ, and Princess N’Gouen (also called Nguonso) established the Kingdom of Nso (also called Banso). In the second wave of migration, Prince Mbli left Bankim to establish the Kingdom of Kong, while Prince Indie and Prince Ouhin migrated south, founding the villages of We and Ina, respectively. However, these settlements never developed into full-fledged kingdoms. During

3432-602: The Kom, Nso, Bamum, Ndop-Bamunka, and Bafut peoples have credible claims to Tikar ancestry. Oral tradition asserts that the Tikar people originally inhabited the Nile River valley in present-day Sudan. Some sources further claim that the Tikar ancestors migrated from the Kingdom of Kush. For reasons that remain unclear—possibly war or famine—the Tikar settled on the Bamenda Plateau in Cameroon, where they established

3520-569: The Nso Palace. These, inexhaustively, include the Fons of Oku, Mbiami, Nseh, Nkar, Gwan, Kiluun, Ngashong, Nshokov, Gwarkang, Taabah, etc. The Fons of Oku and Mbiami were once princes of Nso. All the Fons of Nso and Shufai Ndzendzev are members of both the Nwerong and the Ngiri. The Nso society is divided into groups according to lineage. Each lineage group is led by a "Fai". Tradition dictates that

3608-438: The Nso men and Nso women. This gender inequality is defined by the subjectivity of the women to their men regardless that the women are considered the "backbone of the country" (Goheen 1996: 63). The Nso have an agricultural society and most of their food subsistence comes from farming. Nso women are called the "backbone of the country" because they are the farmers. However, these women do not have any power over what they produce on

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3696-653: The Tikar and the Bamum. E. M. Chilver and Phyllis Mary Kaberry suggested that claims of Tikar ancestry by smaller Grassfields groups may often be political in nature. Small communities of Hausa people in Cameroon also identify as Tikar. Groups claiming descent from Tikar fondoms include the Bambili, Oku, Kom, Bum, Bafut, Nso, Mbiame, Wiya, Tang, War, Mbot, Mbem, Fungom, Weh, Mmen, Bamunka, Babungo, Bamessi, Bamessing, Bambalang, Bamali, Bafanji, Baba (Papiakum), Bangola, Big Babanki, Babanki Tungo, Nkwen, and Bambui. However, anthropologists and historians generally agree that only

3784-441: The Tikar language belong to a different genetic cluster than the self-identified Tikar who live amongst other Grassfields ethnic groups and do not speak the Tikar language. It concluded that persons from Cameroon and Sudan "showed the greatest reduction in genetic similarity with distance, which remained even after only comparing people belonging to the same ethnic group." The same study found Tikar-related genetic variations amongst

3872-465: The Tikar people have "23% ancestry related to an archaic population that diverged prior to the divergence of all modern human populations (possibly reflecting introgression from an archaic population into modern populations) and 77% ancestry from a population related to the Nilo-Saharan -speaking Mursi " people of Ethiopia . The study also found that "The Fulani derived 50% of their ancestry from

3960-529: The Tikar people inhabit the Adamawa Region and certain regions of Bamenda Province . The Northwest is composed of the Fungum, Bum, and Kom . The Northeast is composed of Mbem, Mbaw, Wiya, War and Tang. The Southeast is composed of Banso (Nsaw), Ndop and Bafut . The Tikar people, speak a Northern Bantoid , semi-Bantu language called Tikar , which is hypothesized to be a divergent language in

4048-503: The Tikar people through Tikar rulers of the Kingdom of Bamum . According to Molefi Kente Asante , the "Bamum and the Tikar are renowned as great artists who create monumental sculptures of bronze and beads. Cultural exchanges between the Tikar and the Bamum have enriched both groups. For instance, the Bamum adopted numerous words from the Tikar language, as well as from other languages, including Bafanji , Bamali , and Bambalang ." Anthropologists have also noted cultural similarities between

4136-747: The Tikar people. Although these claims are heavily contested, one ethnic group in modern Cameroon identifies as Tikar and is recognized as directly descending from the original Tikar people. Debates persist regarding the broader use of the term Tikar/Tikari to designate many villages and towns in northwestern Cameroon. Additionally, some ethnic groups in the region claim Tikar descent through royal bloodlines. However, oral traditions and DNA testing conducted by companies such as African Ancestry, Inc. have demonstrated that these groups are genetically distinct. While some individuals receive Tikar of Cameroon results, others are identified as Bamileke of Cameroon. The Bamum and other groups have also asserted connections to

4224-467: The camped at Sov where they received a gift of a ram from the Fon. It was noted by Lt Von Pavel that the first contact with the Nso people of Bansso was friendly. According to oral tradition it was suspected that the reason for later hostilities against the Nso by German forces is based on a long-standing practice by the Nso warriors that involved keeping the skulls of their defeated war enemies as trophies. When

4312-465: The changing of legislation, any fon can be held in contempt or detained for failure to comply. The present Fon is Sehm Mbinglo I. Women's tasks in the precolonial period included producing both crops and children. This has been a linchpin of the male power and status in the whole of Africa. This phenomenon is deeply analyzed in Miriam Goheen's 1997 ethnography, Men Own the Fields, Women Own

4400-536: The city of Foumban in Northwest Cameroon. Once the Fulani followed to the south, holy war began, forcing some ethnic groups to flee yet again. Others, like the Bamun, remained, hoping to resist Islam. The Fulani conquest was brief and did not result in Islamization, although this faith was accepted by a later Bamum ruler, Sultan Ibrahim Mbouombouo Njoya , in the early 20th century. This created

4488-557: The colonial administration. The Fon would also retain a commission, thus turning a former kingship headed by the Fon and a council into a figurehead that answered to the Crown. These policies, outlined by European imperialists, were enforced by regional fons . Oftentimes a fon lost the high approval of his people, but maintained a favorable standing with the Europeans—provided he maintain their mandates. Following liberation in 1960,

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4576-408: The crops. The men of each village were given the rights to use the lands upon which their families (primarily the wives) farmed, either by the fon or inheritance. The crops harvested from them were sold by the women in the marketplaces and the spoils of their work were given to the husbands. Despite the fact that the Nso men obviously had taken the lead in the domination of the society that includes at

4664-416: The death of Mfon Mbuembue, there was no male heir to inherit his throne. Njapdunke took over for some time but failed to represent the king. She was removed and it was thought that one of the king's sons Mbetnkom was at a village called Massagham for treatment. He was brought back and became Mfon Mbetnkom. Mbetnkom was a short man, a dictator who had the legs of those who were taller than him chopped off. This

4752-402: The deceased ancestors and still present. "The skulls are in the possession of the eldest living male in each lineage, and all members of an extended family recognize the same skulls as belonging to their group. When a family decides to relocate, a dwelling, which must be first purified by a diviner, is built to house the skulls in the new location. Although not all of the ancestral skulls are in

4840-465: The differences between the spiritual practices, the Tikar are known to refer to God the Creator as Nyuy, and the Bamileke people refer to Nyuy as Si . Both groups, along with the other peoples of the Grasslands, believe God requires them to reverence their lineage ancestors. This is pivotal to their spirituality; as they traditionally believed their ancestral spirits were embodied in the skulls of

4928-608: The division between the Bamum and Bafia people . Nso people The Nso people are from the Bamenda grass fields Northwest Region of Cameroon . Their traditional language is Lamnso (language of Nso) and their capital is Kumbo – where the Palace of the Fon is found. The Nso’ people migrated from Tikari in the Adamawa Region of Cameroon when there was a bloody succession after the death of Chief Tinki in 1387. The enthronement of Mveing as successor of Tinki sent all rivals to

5016-419: The farms except to feed their husbands and children with the food crops. In addition, these farmer women do not have any power over their farms because these farms could only be allocated to them by their men. Besides, the Nso women think it is their responsibility to take care of the food supplies of their households and they find great pride and strength in doing it. Therefore, in the Nso community, any woman who

5104-420: The followers of Mbuembue. Nsangou, a grandson of Mbuembue became king. Eventually King Njoya , son of the slain king, came to power. He was one of Bamum's most prolific rulers and ruled from approximately 1883 to 1931. He voluntarily put his kingdom under the protection of German colonial power and was responsible for modernizing certain elements of Mbum society. In 1897, Njoya and his court converted to Islam,

5192-474: The founder and Kuotu. The nine kings who followed Nchare are not remembered for anything special. They were not conquerors, and territorial expansion did not occur until the reign of the tenth Mbum, Mbum Mbuembue, in the early 19th century. King Mbuembue was the first ruler to expand the Bamun Kingdom, famously claiming that he would mark his borders "with blood and black iron". He repelled an attack by

5280-418: The francophone Cameroon joined with anglophone Cameroon to form their current republic. Seeing the fallacies and difficulties of the colonial state, the fledgling post-colonial government aimed to forge a new, self-reliant state centered around using the state itself as the main source of production. On the surface it may appear that the hybrid of parliamentary-style government and the traditional fon structure

5368-413: The group with palm wine. When a member has done an adequate job of "celebrating" Mfu, the drums will come out for dancing. Nso shares a vast culture. This is usually exhibited during the cultural week festival "Ngam Ngonso". This festival brings together all the various aspects of tradition and culture shared not only the Nso people but amongst the other tribes around Nso. "Jujus" are seen on display from

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5456-688: The hand of a Fai is not to be shaken. Fais can be recognized by their glass bead necklaces and fancy walking sticks. A Fai is instituted by a Fon. Other leaders are called Sheys, and are a level below the Fais. As a result of the Berlin Conference Cameroon became part of the German Empire in 1884 Indirect contact took place in the fifteenth century when the Portuguese arrived at the northern coast of present-day Cameroon, but

5544-714: The high number of Tikar people who were kidnapped and sold into slavery in the Americas. The Bamum people and other ethnic groups have also asserted their link to the Tikar people through Tikar rulers in the Kingdom of Bamum . However, the Kom , Nso , Bamum , Ndop-Bamunka, and Bafut peoples are the only ethnic groups that anthropologists and historians believe have a legitimate claim to Tikar lineage. There are currently six adjoining Tikar kingdoms: Bankim (Kimi), Ngambé-Tikar, Kong (Nkong/Boikouong), Nditam (Bandam), Ngoumé, and Gâ (Ntchi). The boundaries of these kingdoms have remained since German colonizers arrived in Cameroon. During

5632-457: The kingdom become more prosperous. The Mbum were able to trade outside their traditional borders, and the income greatly improved the standard of living. King Njoya was much influenced by the missionaries who denounced idols, human sacrifice and polygamy. In response, Njoya cut back on royal excesses. Nobles were allowed to marry slaves and those of the non-landed servile class. The king, however, remained unconverted to Christianity. He merged some of

5720-460: The kingdom of Bamoun thus fell under French rule. In 1923 Njoya was deposed, and his script was banned by the French. The Bamum kingdom's population used secret societies. One society, the ngiri, was for princes. Another, the mitngu, was for the general populace regardless of social status. The mfon recruited most of his retainers from twins and the sons of princesses. The king of Bamum was known as

5808-541: The largest in Cameroon’s grasslands. Both the kingdom and its capital are believed to be named after Nchare Yen’s mother, Mfoumban. Despite the historical ties between the Bamum and Tikar peoples, they are considered distinct ethnic groups today. There are currently six adjoining Tikar kingdoms: Bankim ( Kimi ), Ngambé-Tikar , Kong , Nditam (Bandam), Ngoumé , and Gâ . The boundaries of these kingdoms have remained since German colonizers arrived in Cameroon. Today,

5896-417: The mfon, a title shared by Tikar rulers. The mfon engaged in large-scale polygamy giving rise to a proliferation of royal lineages. This led to the palace nobility growing rapidly. Little is known about the kingdom's material and social culture during this time. Originally, the language of state in the Bamum kingdom was that of the Tikar. This apparently did not last long, and the language of the conquered Mben

5984-452: The national level and at the local level, women have been seen to have some things which belong to them solely by the virtue that they are women. This is clearly indicated by the fact that the parcels of land may belong to the men but the women are the ones who control the crop yielding through the input of their labor. They traditionally decided what would happen with the crops after they were harvested and would typically subsistence farm. This

6072-445: The native language. The Germans introduced new housing construction techniques while settling among the kingdom's inhabitants as farmers, traders and educators. King Njoya remained loyal to his German overlords who respected his rights as king and consulted him on colonial business. Another important element in the kingdom's history during German protection was the introduction of sweet potatoes, macabo and other new foods, which helped

6160-411: The open courtyards. Surrounded by great grasslands , the Tikar people developed a unique understanding of nature and performed planting rituals to bless seeds and work implements. Other ethnic groups in the region were known to offer animal sacrifices when it was time to plant. The Tikar also had their own cultural beliefs regarding birthing. It was once believed that during pregnancy, the blood that

6248-518: The political and military elite of these invaders. Mohammadou also suggested that the Mbum were the region’s original inhabitants and spread their culture and language through peaceful interactions and trade. However, Zeitlyn identified several issues with Mohammadou’s arguments, including the lack of concrete evidence for Bare-Chamba invasions, confusion between groups with similar names, and insufficient consideration of oral traditions and linguistic evidence. Zeitlyn also questioned Mohammadou’s claim that

6336-456: The possession of a family, they are not forgotten. These spirits have nowhere to reside, though, and may as a result cause trouble for the family. To compensate when a man's skull is not preserved, a family member must undergo a ceremony involving pouring libations into the ground. Earth gathered from the site of that offering then comes to represent the skull of the deceased. Respect is also paid to female skulls, although detail about such practices

6424-493: The presence of the Fon to discuss family matters. There are other Fons that generally act as advisers to the Fon of Nso. The existence of these Fons today signifies an evolution in the history of the Nso people. Most of them were once leaders of independent tribes that through warfare or peaceful negotiations, or through share events of history, came to subordinate the Fon of Nso. They are the only ones (along with foreign Fons) that are allowed to bring in their own seats ( Kavahs ) to

6512-486: The reign of Sultan Njoya , ruler of the Kingdom of Bamum , French missionary and translator Henri Martin documented that the Bamum people translated the word Tikar as "those who wander." Today, there is ongoing debate about whether the Tikar should be considered a distinct ethnic group, like the Hausa people, or if the term serves as a general label for multiple groups. Some smaller communities assert that they descend from

6600-459: The reign of Mfon Nsangou. During his reign, Bamum fought a war with the Nso . By the end of the conflict, the king was killed, and his head was carried off by the Nso. Immediately after, one of the king's wives, Njapdunke, took over the kingdom's government with her lover Gbetnkom Ndo`mbue. (Gbetnkom was not the mfon as there was another Gbetnkom who was the son of Mfon Mbuembue the great conqueror.) After

6688-409: The society members. The passing by of a juju being led by its handlers and followed by children is quite the street performance. Other jujus include groups that dance to drums and xylophones. Another traditional organization is "Mfu", a warrior society. Each village has its own chapter with its own meeting house where the group gathers every eighth day (the traditional week). It is a place where men in

6776-403: The tenets of Christianity and Islam with traditional beliefs to create a new religion more palatable to his subjects. In 1906, Germany sent an expeditionary force against the Nso backed up by King Njoya's warriors. After the victory, the force reclaimed the head of Njoya's father, which was crucial for legitimizing the king. From then on, the bond between Bamum and Germany was strong. In 1914,

6864-517: The throne away from Kimi. Ngonnso’, the founder of the Nso’ dynasty, left Kimi with a few followers together with her brothers Nchare Yen and Mbombam and their respective followers. After parting company with her brothers, Ngonnso’ and her followers first settled in Mbo’nso’, then later to Ndzennso’, Kovifem, Taavisa (for security), back to Koovifem, then to Kimbo (Kumbo). The tribe got its name from Ngonnso’, and

6952-399: The town Bali . Tikar horns and trumpets play a significant role in spiritual and cultural ceremonies with each design being purposefully sculpted for a specific event. The same can be said for elaborate grassland palaces, which feature hand-carved pillars supporting the roof overhangs, an ensemble of door posts, lintels and sills framing the entrance, as well as the interior doorways facing

7040-463: The village can come to hear the latest news and where the village leaders can disseminate information or organize village work. Most Mfu houses are richly decorated with carved posts, both inside and outside. To enter the Mfu house, one must wear a hat and a cutlass , and one must bring a drinking cup to partake in the drinking of "Melu" ( raffia palm wine). Each member of Mfu must take their turn supplying

7128-423: The way" (Goheen 1996:71). Only men are required to discuss public matters with the chief or other leaders at the council of men. Jujus, masked spirits, are an important part of Nso culture. (The word " Juju " can also refer to some type of magic.) Jujus come out on important occasions. Ngwerong and Ngiri (the prince's society) each have seven jujus, often seen passing by on the way to the death celebration of one of

7216-456: The woman would normally release during menstruation forms parts of the fetus. This blood was said to form the skin, blood, flesh and most of the organs. The bones, brain, heart and teeth were believed to be formed from the father's sperm . In the case of a son, the masculinity also came from this. The Tikar people predominantly practice Christianity today. However, there are a small number who practice traditional religions and Islam. Despite

7304-429: The years other Shufais have been appointed by the Fon of Nso without any major political influence, but for the fact that they get a seat at the lower ends of the seating ranks in the palace. His power is kept in check by regulatory groups such as the "Ngwerong" (also "Nwerong") which is in effect the security arm of the government and enforces decisions taken by the Fon. The Nwerong is solely responsible for enthronement of

7392-409: Was a practice that cost his life during a hunting training session. After his death, his little son, Mbienkuo succeeded him. He was too young to rule. It became a habit for him to want to know who was his father amongst the people who were taking guards behind him. His court led by Ngouoh became doubtful and thought the boy may eventually learn that they are the people who killed his father. Mfon Mbienkuo

7480-450: Was adopted. The economy was largely agricultural, and slave owning was practiced on a small scale. The Bamum kingdom traded with neighboring populations. They imported salt, iron, beads, cotton goods and copper objects. The Bamun developed an extensive artistic culture at their capital of Foumban at the beginning of the 20th century. During Njoya ’s reign six color dye pits were maintained. The Mbum imported indigo-dyed raffia-sewn cloth from

7568-413: Was carried away and killed in a place called "Mfe shut Mfon mbwere." The throne remained vacant for some time and Ngouoh, the leader of the court ultimately became Mfon. He unfortunately was not a descendant of king Mbuembue. He was a Bamileke slave. Ngouoh was not welcome by his subjects and decided to move the palace to his own location. Mfon Ngouoh was later chased away after a fierce fight between him and

7656-433: Was done to pay homage to the foundation upon which the current republic is forged, but it was done to implement a new type of indirect rule. While there are three classifications of chiefs, each class serves as a function of the larger state and turning fons into clients. This keeps the local people happy by maintaining their traditional systems while at the same time undermining the fon by not giving him true autonomy. With

7744-404: Was imposed upon the Nso people by the imperialists, first the Germans and then the British. The colonial tax system undermined the Fon in his sub-chiefdoms by the institution of indirect rule . Traditionally, the sub-chiefdoms paid tribute directly to the fon, but with the new system they would collect taxes and keep a portion of the tax commission then turn it over to the Fon who collected it for

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