187-538: The textile and clothing industries provide a single source of growth in Bangladesh's rapidly developing economy . Exports of textiles and garments are the principal source of foreign exchange earnings. By 2002 exports of textiles, clothing, and ready-made garments (RMG) accounted for 77% of Bangladesh's total merchandise exports. Emerging as the world's second-largest exporter of ready-made garment (RMG) products, Bangladesh significantly bolstered employment within
374-589: A New York Times journalist by August 2012 the garment or textile industry which exports worth $ 18 billion a year, accounted for "80 percent of manufacturing exports and more than three million jobs". According to the 2014 Bureau of International Labor Affairs 's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor , the Bangladeshi garments and textile industry still employs underage children as effective governmental measures are taking considerable time to be implemented. The structure of gender participation in
561-399: A 'typology of nationalizing, developmental, and neoliberal migration management regimes' across developing countries. Following independence and decolonization in the 20th century, most developing countries had dire need of new infrastructure , industry and economic stimulation. Many relied on foreign investment. This funding focused on improving infrastructure and industry, but led to
748-513: A 2016 study found that these tariffs had no impact on employment and wages in the US tire industry. In 2018, EU Trade Commissioner Cecilia Malmström stated that the US was "playing a dangerous game" in applying tariffs on steel and aluminum imports from most countries and stated that she saw the Trump administration's decision to do so as both "pure protectionist" and "illegal". The tariffs imposed by
935-519: A 47% share of Bangladesh's total woven exports. The European Union remains the largest regional destination - Bangladesh exported US$ 5.36 billion in apparel; 50% of their total apparel exports. The EU took a 61% share of Bangladeshi knitwear with US$ 3.36 billion exports. According to a 2011 report by international consulting firm McKinsey & Company , 80 percent of American and European clothing companies planned to move their outsourcing from China, where wages had risen, and were considering Bangladesh as
1122-488: A Parisian firm, was shipped from a Bangladeshi firm. The Bangladeshi government began to realize potential for the industry to flourish and offered development stimulus such as "duty-free import machinery and raw materials, bonded warehouse facilities and cash incentives." RMGs are the finished textile product from clothing factories and the Bangladeshi RMG Sector is one of the fastest growing sectors in
1309-659: A century of industrial experience and development of national regulation and international conventions, workers in Bangladesh continue to lose their health and lives while contributing in the national enrichment. The scenario becomes worse when it comes to women workers. The female workers are exposed to different occupational health hazards such as work environment hazards, physical hazards and mental hazards. The work environment hazards include long working hours, absence of leave facilities, congested and overcrowded working conditions, absence of health facilities and safety measures, absence of staff amenities, lack of safe drinking water. On
1496-498: A clear definition, sustainability expert Mathis Wackernagel and founder of Global Footprint Network , emphasizes that the binary labeling of countries is "neither descriptive nor explanatory". Wackernagel identifies these binary terms of "developing" vs. "developed" countries, or "North" vs. "South", as "a thoughtless and destructive endorsement of GDP fetish." Wackernagel and Rosling both argue that in reality, there are not two types of countries, but over 200 countries, all faced with
1683-532: A formalized union, many lack the ability to speak of injustices either from lack of knowledge or fear of losing economic security. Historical associations of women's labour being "cheap" and "flexible" lead to disparities of unsafe working conditions that female labourers undergo. A typical work day for labourers can last 10-12 hours, with less than an hour worth of breaks. The lackluster enforcement of any safety mechanisms creates hazardous working conditions and negligible workers' rights even though Bangladesh has been
1870-412: A free market, where there is no such total loss. Economist Stephen P. Magee claims the benefits of free trade outweigh the losses by as much as 100 to 1. Protectionism has been accused of being one of the major causes of war. Proponents of this theory point to the constant warfare in the 17th and 18th centuries among European countries whose governments were predominantly mercantilist and protectionist,
2057-462: A high climate vulnerability or low climate resilience . Developing countries often have lower median ages than developed countries. Population aging is a global phenomenon, but population age has risen more slowly in developing countries. Development aid or development cooperation is financial aid given by foreign governments and other agencies to support developing countries' economic, environmental, social, and political development . If
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#17327799594042244-445: A human urinary carcinogen. The latency period between exposure and diagnosis has been estimated at up to 23 years. As of 2006, screening recommendations for detection of long-term health effects from dye exposure included hematologic testing to look for microcytic anemia and leukopenia. However, many females working in this industry did not have access to such screening and surveillance due to lack of quality medical care. Sandblasting
2431-524: A large informal economy , high crime rates ( extortion , robbery , burglary , murder , homicide , arms trafficking , sex trafficking , drug trafficking , kidnapping , rape ), low education levels, economic inequality , school desertion , inadequate access to family planning services, teenage pregnancy , many informal settlements and slums , corruption at all government levels, and political instability. Unlike developed countries, developing countries lack rule of law . Access to healthcare
2618-455: A limited set of circumstances and that trade policy will rarely be the best response to the problems [of globalization]". According to economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke, there is a consensus in the economics literature that protectionist policies in the interwar period "hurt the world economy overall, although there is a debate about whether the effect was large or small." Economic historian Paul Bairoch argued that economic protection
2805-486: A medium to low standard of living . There is an association between low income and high population growth. The development of a country is measured with statistical indices such as income per capita (per person), gross domestic product per capita, life expectancy , the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the Human Development Index (HDI), a compound indicator of some of
2992-591: A member of the International Labour Organization (ILO) since 1972 and the ILO been operating a Bangladeshi office since 1973. In that time Bangladesh has ratified 33 ILO agreements and eight "fundamental conventions," but there are still glaring gaps in protecting worker safety. Many experts then call on corporate organizations to take responsibility and place pressure on the government and factory owners to treat workers fairly. After more than
3179-943: A method of grouping countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics . According to UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the Global South broadly comprises Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean , Asia (excluding Israel , Japan , and South Korea ), and Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand ). Most of the Global South's countries are commonly identified as lacking in their standard of living , which includes having lower incomes , high levels of poverty , high population growth rates , inadequate housing, limited educational opportunities, and deficient health systems , among other issues. Additionally, these countries' cities are characterized by their poor infrastructure . Opposite to
3366-691: A non-partner (not including sexual harassment ) at some point in their lives. Evidence shows women who have had experienced physical or sexual intimate partner violence report higher rates of depression, having an abortion and acquiring HIV , compared to women who have not had experienced any physical or sexual violence. Data from the Middle East and North Africa shows that men who witnessed their fathers against their mothers, and men who experienced some form of violence as children, more likely have reported perpetrating intimate partner violence in their adult relationships. The status of healthcare that
3553-564: A preferential treatment at the WTO , countries such as Brunei , Hong Kong , Kuwait , Macao , Qatar , Singapore , and the United Arab Emirates have been cited and criticized for this self-declared status. Development can be measured by economic or human factors. Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases,
3740-644: A role in the growth of the Bangladeshi garment industry, as the country's garment exports are mainly concentrated in the United States and the European Union. Alam and Natsuda found that during the Multi-Fibre Arrangement (MFA) period, only 21 out of 52 firms exported to a third market, but post-MFA, 66 out of 69 have exported to a third market, which indicates a diversification in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Bangladesh ranked as
3927-432: A state-owned enterprise (SOE) called Bangladesh Textile Mills Corporation (BTMC). President Rahman promoted democracy and a socialist form of capitalism. The BTMC never managed to match the pre-1971 output and in every year after the 1975–1976 fiscal year, lost money. Until the early 1980s the state owned almost all spinning mills in Bangladesh and 85 percent the textile industry's assets (not including small businesses). Under
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#17327799594044114-410: A state-sponsored capitalist mode of industrial development with mainly state-owned enterprises (SOE) to private sector-led industrial growth. Post-liberation war, Bangladesh continued to focus on the agricultural sector to feed its rural and poor masses. Even in 1978, there were only nine "export-oriented" garment manufacturing units. That same year the first direct export of garments, 10,000 shirts to
4301-457: A static contraction of the extensor muscles of the back. The flattened lumbar spine may cause back fatigue, disc degeneration and back injuries. But it is not only related to posture, design of the workstation can also worsen the problem. Sarder and colleagues found that seats in garment factories were devoid of a backrest, which would allow intermittent short breaks for resting the upper body from bending. Also, many seats are hard and wooden, without
4488-818: A system of systemic exploitation. They exported raw materials, such as rubber , for a bargain. Companies based in the Western world have often used the cheaper labor in developing countries for production. The West benefited significantly from this system, but left developing countries undeveloped. This arrangement is sometimes called neocolonialism , meaning a system in which less-developed countries are taken advantage of by developed countries. It does not necessarily mean that former colonies are still controlled by their former colonizer; it refers to colonial-like exploitation. Developing countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being developed themselves. Several institutions have been established with
4675-585: A temporary waiver to enable more widespread production of the vaccines, since suppressing the virus as quickly as possible benefits the entire world. The waivers would be in addition to the existing, but cumbersome, flexibilities in TRIPS allowing countries to impose compulsory licenses. Over 100 developing nations supported the waiver but it was blocked by the G7 members. This blocking was condemned by 400 organizations including Doctors Without Borders and 115 members of
4862-470: Is "cheaper than anywhere else in the world." While some smaller factories were documented making pay cuts and layoffs, most downsizing was essentially speculative – the orders for goods kept coming even after the MFA expired. In fact, Bangladesh's exports increased in value by about $ 500 million in 2006. Textile exports from Bangladesh to the United States did increase by 10% in 2009. The United States introduced
5049-404: Is a sovereign state with a less developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category. The terms low and middle-income country ( LMIC ) and newly emerging economy ( NEE ) are often used interchangeably but refers only to
5236-430: Is a broad consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers has a positive effect on economic growth. However, protectionism can be used to raise government revenue and enable access to intellectual property, including essential medicines. Protectionism is frequently criticized by economists as harming
5423-492: Is a consensus among economists that protectionism has a negative effect on economic growth and economic welfare, while free trade and the reduction of trade barriers have a significantly positive effect on economic growth . Some scholars, such as Douglas Irwin , have implicated protectionism as the cause of some economic crises, most notably the Great Depression . On the contrary, Paul Krugman , winner of
5610-401: Is a technique used on denim to give the garment a worn look. The sand that is used is often composed of 95% quartz and 15% feldspar. Silicosis is an often-fatal lung disease caused by the exposure to respirable silica dust. Silicosis often leads to more severe lung diseases such as; lung cancer, Bronchitis, and Tuberculosis. In 2003, Turkish investigators performed and published a case study in
5797-625: Is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), and Ethiopia (74%). Due to globalization and immigration, FGM
Textile industry in Bangladesh - Misplaced Pages Continue
5984-436: Is criticism for using the term "developing country". The term could imply inferiority of this kind of country compared with a developed country . It could assume a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan , choose not to follow. Alternative measurements such as gross national happiness have been suggested as important indicators. One of
6171-452: Is defined by sociologist Patrick Heller as: "closing [the] gap between formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice those rights". Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in developing countries has also shed valuable light in migration debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus on developed countries. Some political scientists identify
6358-427: Is not causation... there is no reason for necessarily thinking that import protection was a good policy just because the economic outcome was good: the outcome could have been driven by factors completely unrelated to the tariff, or perhaps could have been even better in the absence of protection." Irwin furthermore writes that "few observers have argued outright that the high tariffs caused such growth." One study by
6545-463: Is now dominated by the ready-made garments (RMG) industry. In 2012 Bangladesh's garment exports – mainly to the US and Europe – made up nearly 80% of the country's export income. By 2014 the RMG industry represented 81.13 percent of Bangladesh's total export. Much of the tremendous growth of the sector and its role as an economic powerhouse for the country is attributed to the availability of "cheap" labor. Of
6732-474: Is often low. People in developing countries usually have lower life expectancies than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health. The burden of infectious diseases, maternal mortality , child mortality and infant mortality are typically substantially higher in those countries. The effects of climate change are expected to impact developing countries more than high-income countries, as most of them have
6919-407: Is often neglected in many of the countries. The reasons may be the scarcity of relevant professionals and additional cost for implementations on which majority of the owners are less interested. Thus, there are high rate of musculoskeletal symptoms in different body parts among sewing machine operators which points out for proper interventions. To reduce awkward posture for the neck, back and shoulders,
7106-848: Is often used interchangeably with "developing country" but refers only to the economy of the countries. Least developed countries , landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries . The term " Global South " began to be used more widely since about 2004. It can also include poorer "southern" regions of wealthy "northern" countries. The Global South refers to these countries' "interconnected histories of colonialism , neo-imperialism , and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained". Global North and Global South are terms that denote
7293-408: Is one with GNI per capita between 1,046 and 4,095 in current US$ ; an upper middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 4,096 and 12,695 in current US$ , and a high income country is one with GNI per capita of more than 12,696 in current US$ . Historical thresholds are documented. The use of the term "market" instead of "country" usually indicates a specific focus on the characteristics of
7480-542: Is spreading beyond the borders of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK. The Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38). As of 2016, FGM has been legally banned in many African countries. According to UN Women facts and figures on ending violence against women , it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and sexual violence by intimate partners or sexual violence by
7667-495: Is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas , and a variety of other government regulations. Proponents argue that protectionist policies shield the producers, businesses, and workers of the import-competing sector in the country from foreign competitors and raise government revenue . Opponents argue that protectionist policies reduce trade , and adversely affect consumers in general (by raising
Textile industry in Bangladesh - Misplaced Pages Continue
7854-406: Is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential. About 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013. In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition. The following list shows
8041-765: Is the exception and protectionism the rule". According to economic historians Douglas Irwin and Kevin O'Rourke, "shocks that emanate from brief financial crises tend to be transitory and have a little long-run effect on trade policy, whereas those that play out over longer periods (the early 1890s, early 1930s) may give rise to protectionism that is difficult to reverse. Regional wars also produce transitory shocks that have little impact on long-run trade policy, while global wars give rise to extensive government trade restrictions that can be difficult to reverse." One study shows that sudden shifts in comparative advantage for specific countries have led some countries to become protectionist: "The shift in comparative advantage associated with
8228-426: Is the most distorted exchange rate policy any great nation has ever followed”. He notes that an undervalued renminbi is tantamount to imposing high tariffs or providing export subsidies. A cheaper currency improves employment and competitiveness because it makes imports more expensive while making domestic products more attractive. He expects Chinese surpluses to destroy 1.4 million American jobs by 2011. There
8415-432: Is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50% contribution from the secondary sector ( manufacturing ) have grown substantially. Similarly, countries with a tertiary sector stronghold also see a greater rate of economic development . The term "developing countries" has many research theories associated with it (in chronological order): There
8602-525: The Journal of Occupational Health on five sandblasting factories. They found workers inside poorly ventilated factories being exposed to respirable silica dust 20 times that of the recommended safety levels. This case study followed a sample of sandblasters from these factories, with a mean age of 23, and an employment duration of three years. When the study concluded, over one third of the sandblasters had lab-confirmed silicosis and two workers had died during
8789-543: The American Revolution , which came about ostensibly due to British tariffs and taxes. According to a slogan of Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850), "When goods cannot cross borders, armies will." On the other hand, archaeologist Lawrence H. Keeley argues in his book War Before Civilization that disputes between trading partners escalate to war more frequently than disputes between nations that don't trade much with each other. The Opium Wars were fought between
8976-485: The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics Labor Force Survey estimated there were about 5.7 million 10- to 14-year-old children engaged in child labor . This number may have been as high as 15 million children. In 1993 employers in Bangladesh' ready-made garment (RMG) industry dismissed 50,000 children (c. 75 percent of child workers in the textile industry) out of fear of economic reprisals of the imminent passage of
9163-653: The Child Labor Deterrence Act (the Harkin Bill after Senator Tom Harkin , one of the US Senators who proposed the bill). The act which banned "importation to the United States of products which are manufactured or mined in whole or in part by children" would have resulted in the loss of lucrative American contracts. Its impact on Bangladesh's economy would have been significant as the export-oriented ready-made garment industry represents most of
9350-635: The Doha Declaration , was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises and allowed for compulsory licenses . After Doha, PhRMA , the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration. In 2020, conflicts re-emerged over patents, copyrights and trade secrets related to COVID-19 vaccines , diagnostics and treatments. South Africa and India proposed that WTO grant
9537-742: The European Parliament . In June 2022, after extensive involvement of the European Union , the WTO instead adopted a watered-down agreement that focuses only on vaccine patents, excludes high-income countries and China, and contains few provisions that are not covered by existing flexibilities. Proponents of protectionism argue that tariffs raise government revenue via customs . Developing countries , including least developed countries (LDCs), often do not collect income taxes because personal incomes are often too low to tax and they lack
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#17327799594049724-571: The Sustainable Development Goals which were set up by the United Nations for the year 2030 are achieved, they would overcome many of these problems. There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes, these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging. The World Bank classifies
9911-777: The Trump administration during the China–United States trade war led to a reduction in the United States trade deficit with China. Defunct Great Britain , and England in particular, became one of the most prosperous economic regions in the world between the late 1600s and early 1800s as a result of being the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-eighteenth century. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to
10098-514: The UK and China over the right of British merchants to engage in the free trade of opium . For many opium users, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug. Barbara Tuchman says both European intellectuals and leaders overestimated
10285-544: The United Kingdom between 1815 and 1846, and enhanced the profits and political power associated with land ownership . The laws raised food prices and the costs of living for the British public, and hampered the growth of other British economic sectors, such as manufacturing, by reducing the disposable income of the British public. The Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel , a Conservative , achieved repeal in 1846 with
10472-455: The WTO benefited US consumers, as the price of Chinese goods were substantially reduced. Harvard economist Dani Rodrik argues that while globalization and free trade does contribute to social problems, "a serious retreat into protectionism would hurt the many groups that benefit from trade and would result in the same kind of social conflicts that globalization itself generates. We have to recognize that erecting trade barriers will help in only
10659-597: The "next hot spot" making it the "next China" offering 'the lowest price possible' known as the China Price , the hallmark of China's incredibly cheap, ubiquitous manufacturers, much "dreaded by competitors." Starting in 1974 the Multi Fibre Arrangement (MFA) in the North American market ensured that trade in textiles and garments remained the most regulated in the world. Among other things
10846-474: The "reciprocity period", the average tariff declined substantially until it leveled off at 5 percent. Economist Paul Bairoch documented that the United States imposed among the highest rates in the world from around the founding of the country until the World War II period, describing the United States as "the mother country and bastion of modern protectionism" since the end of the 18th century and until
11033-490: The 1846 Corn Laws debate, arguing that it destroyed what had been "some of the finest manufacturers of the world" in 1812. The countries of Western Europe began to steadily liberalize their economies after World War II and the protectionism of the interwar period, but John Tsang , then Hong Kong 's Secretary for Commerce, Industry and Technology and chair of the Sixth Ministerial Conference of
11220-543: The 18th century, Adam Smith famously warned against the "interested sophistry" of industry, seeking to gain an advantage at the cost of the consumers. Friedrich List saw Adam Smith's views on free trade as disingenuous, believing that Smith advocated for free trade so that British industry could lock out underdeveloped foreign competition. Some have argued that no major country has ever successfully industrialized without some form of economic protection. Economic historian Paul Bairoch wrote that "historically, free trade
11407-482: The 1950s, steel in the 1960s, automobiles in the 1970s, and electronics in the 1980s. In each case, the rapid expansion in Japan's exports created difficulties for its trading partners and the use of protectionism as a shock absorber." According to economic historian Douglas Irwin, a common myth about US trade policy is that low tariffs harmed American manufacturers in the early 19th century and then that high tariffs made
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#173277995940411594-489: The 1982 New Industrial Policy (NPI) a large number of these assets including jute mills and textile mills were privatized and returned to their original owners. In the devastating famine in 1974, one million people died, mainly of starvation caused in part by the flooding of the Brahmaputra River in 1974, and a steep rise in the price of rice . Partly in response to the economic and political repercussions of
11781-609: The 19th century, such as the Russian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire which remained highly protectionist. The Ottoman Empire also became increasingly protectionist. In the Ottoman Empire's case, however, it previously had liberal free trade policies during the 18th to early 19th centuries, which British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli cited as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in
11968-595: The American and Canadian markets. As the above table shows, the market shares for Bangladeshi textiles in the US and both textiles and clothing in the European Union have changed during the time period of the ATC. Until FY 1994, Bangladesh's ready-made garments (RMG) industry was mostly dependent on imported fabrics - the Primary Textile Sector (PTS) was not producing the necessary fabrics and yarn. Since
12155-401: The Bangladeshi economy, with a growth rate of 55% from 2002 to 2012. Exports of textiles, clothing, and ready-made garments (RMG) accounted for 77% of Bangladesh's total merchandise exports in 2002. By 2005 the (RMG) industry was the only multibillion-dollar manufacturing and export industry in Bangladesh, accounting for 75 per cent of the country's earnings in that year. Bangladesh's export trade
12342-557: The Cobden Chevalier treaty and three decades after British Repeal, Germany "had virtually become a free trade country" (Bairoch, 41). Average duties on manufactured products had declined to 9–12% on the Continent, a far cry from the 50% British tariffs, and numerous prohibitions elsewhere, of the immediate post-Waterloo era (Bairoch, table 3, p. 6, and table 5, p. 42)." Some European powers did not liberalize during
12529-746: The Depression, Britain passed the Import Duties Act of 1932 , which imposed a general tariff of 10% on most imports and created the Import Duties Advisory Committee (IDAC), which could recommend even higher duties. Britain's protectionism in the early 1930s was shown by Lloyd and Solomou to have been productivity-enhancing. The possessions of the East India Company in India, known as British India ,
12716-508: The First World War on motorcars; clocks and watches; musical instruments; and cinematographic film were retained. Under commodities that were early to receive protection included matches, chemicals, scientific equipment, silk, rayon, embroidery, lace, cutlery, gloves, incandescent mantles, paper, pottery, enamelled holloware, and buttons. The duties on motorcars and rayon have been determined to have expanded output considerably. Amid
12903-534: The GDP; the industry was also taking on green manufacturing practices. Bangladesh's textile industry has been part of the trade versus aid debate. The encouragement of the garment industry of Bangladesh as an open trade regime is argued to be a much more effective form of assistance than foreign aid. Tools such as quotas through the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) and Everything but Arms (EBA) and
13090-693: The Global South is the Global North, which the UNCTAD describes as broadly comprising Northern America and Europe, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. As such, the two terms do not refer to the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Hemisphere , as many of the Global South's countries are geographically located in the former and, similarly, a number of the Global North's countries are geographically located in
13277-406: The MFA set quotas on garments exports from the newly industrialising countries of Asia , but had exceptions, most notably the state of Bangladesh. Entrepreneurs from quota-restricted countries like South Korea began "quota hopping" seeking quota-free countries that could become quota-free manufacturing sites. The export-oriented readymade garment industry emerged at this time. Daewoo of South Korea
13464-533: The Mughal era, the most important center of cotton production was Bengal , particularly around its capital city of Dhaka , leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia . Bengal also exported cotton and silk textiles to markets such as Europe, Indonesia and Japan . Bengal produced more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia, for example. Bengal
13651-715: The Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Switzerland, and arguably Sweden and Belgium, had fully moved towards free trade prior to 1860. Economic historians see the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 as the decisive shift toward free trade in Britain. A 1990 study by the Harvard economic historian Jeffrey Williamson showed that the Corn Laws (which imposed restrictions and tariffs on imported grain ) substantially increased
13838-558: The New Industrial Policy (NPI), most significant move in the privatization process, which denationalized much of the textile industry, created export processing zones (EPZs) and encouraged direct foreign investment. Under the New Industrial Policy (NPI) 33 jute mills and 27 textile mills were returned to their original owners. In 1985 the US and Canada actually imposed import quotas of their own, with no international agreement, on Bangladeshi textiles. However, Bangladesh
14025-628: The Nobel Prize for Economics, argues that tariffs had no negative impact during the Great Depression. Although trade liberalization can sometimes result in large and unequally distributed losses and gains, and can, in the short run , cause significant economic dislocation of workers in import-competing sectors, free trade often lowers the costs of goods and services for both producers and consumers. A variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. These include: In
14212-468: The North American market and preferential market access to European markets, led to the "emergence of an export-oriented garment industry in Bangladesh in the late 1970s." It was uncertain what the phase out of the MFA meant for the Bangladeshi RMG industry. However, surpassing all doubts, the industry continued to succeed and dominate on a global level. The garment industry in Bangladesh became
14399-486: The Permissible Exposure Limit for silica but at least some measures are being implicated, or suggested, to have a positive health impact for the sandblasting workers. Another popular chemical involved in an alternate sandblasting technique is Potassium Permanganate or KMnO 4 . It is an odorless, dark purple, sand-like oxidizing agent. It is used to lighten the color of denim in specific areas. In
14586-799: The Tariff Relief Assistance for Developing Economies Act of 2009 designated Bangladesh as one of the 14 least developed countries (LDC), as defined by the United Nations and the US State Department, eligible for "duty-free access for apparel assembled in those countries and exported to the U.S." from 2009 through 2019. The Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA), an industry lobby group, claimed that in 2008 alone Bangladesh paid US$ 576 million as duty against its export of nearly $ 3 billion, mainly consisting of woven and knitwear. However, this act
14773-566: The UN institutions); the former Soviet Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia ( Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan and Turkmenistan ); and Mongolia . By 2009, the IMF's World Economic Outlook classified countries as advanced, emerging, or developing, depending on "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification—so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make
14960-550: The US 2009 Tariff Relief Assistance in the global clothing market have benefited entrepreneurs in Bangladesh's ready-made garments (RMG) industry. In 2012 the textile industry accounted for 45% of all industrial employment in the country yet only contributed 5% of the Bangladesh's total national income. After several building fires and collapses, resulting in the deaths of thousands of workers, the Bangladeshi textile industry and its buyers have faced criticism. Many are concerned with possible worker safety violations and are working to have
15147-577: The United Kingdom as "a decisive shift toward European free trade." This treaty was followed by numerous free trade agreements: "France and Belgium signed a treaty in 1861; a Franco-Prussian treaty was signed in 1862; Italy entered the "network of Cobden-Chevalier treaties" in 1863 (Bairoch 1989, 40); Switzerland in 1864; Sweden, Norway, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic towns in 1865; and Austria in 1866. By 1877, less than two decades after
15334-499: The United Kingdom. Europe became increasingly protectionist during the eighteenth century. Economic historians Findlay and O'Rourke write that in "the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, European trade policies were almost universally protectionist", with the exceptions being smaller countries such as the Netherlands and Denmark. Europe increasingly liberalized its trade during the 19th century. Countries such as
15521-425: The United States into a great industrial power in the late 19th century. A review by The Economist of Irwin's 2017 book Clashing over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy states: Political dynamics would lead people to see a link between tariffs and the economic cycle that was not there. A boom would generate enough revenue for tariffs to fall, and when the bust came pressure would build to raise them again. By
15708-481: The United States occurred under protectionist policies 1816–1848 and under moderate protectionism 1846–1861, and continued under strict protectionist policies 1861–1945. In the late 19th century, higher tariffs were introduced on the grounds that they were needed to protect American wages and to protect American farmers. Between 1824 and the 1940s, the U.S. imposed much higher average tariff rates on manufactured products than did Britain or any other European country, with
15895-562: The United States. In 2010, Paul Krugman write that China pursues a mercantilist and predatory policy, i.e., it keeps its currency undervalued to accumulate trade surpluses by using capital flow controls. The Chinese government sells renminbi and buys foreign currency to keep the renminbi low, giving the Chinese manufacturing sector a cost advantage over its competitors. China's surpluses drain US demand and slow economic recovery in other countries with which China trades. Krugman writes: “This
16082-539: The World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low-income countries, though it may have done so for middle-income countries. Critics argue that TRIPS limits the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation's discretion. TRIPS-plus conditions in the United States' FTAs with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted
16269-607: The World Trade Organization , MC6, commented in 2005 that the EU spent around €70 billion per year on "trade-distorting support". Since 1971 Canada has protected producers of eggs, milk, cheese, chicken, and turkey with a system of supply management . Though prices for these foods in Canada exceed global prices, the farmers and processors have had the security of a stable market to finance their operations. Doubts about
16456-680: The above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the world's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth. These goals ended in 2015, to be superseded by the Sustainable Development Goals . The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations – for example, theories of decolonization , liberation theology , Marxism , anti-imperialism , modernization , social change and political economy . Another important indicator
16643-412: The accessories industries). From 1995 to 2005 the WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) was in effect, wherein more industrialized countries consented to export fewer textiles while less industrialized countries enjoyed increased quotas for exporting their textiles. Throughout the 10-year agreement, Bangladesh's economy benefited from quota-free access to European markets and desirable quotas for
16830-534: The achievement of their independence, most of the Latin American countries adopted protectionism. They both feared that any foreign competition would stomp out their newly created state and believed that lack of outside resources would drive domestic production. The protectionist behavior continued up until and during the World Wars. During World War 2, Latin America had, on average, the highest tariffs in
17017-479: The admittedly high tariffs of the time came with a cost, estimated at around 0.5% of GDP in the mid-1870s. In some industries, they might have sped up development by a few years. But American growth during its protectionist period was more to do with its abundant resources and openness to people and ideas. According to Irwin, tariffs have served three primary purposes in the United States: "to raise revenue for
17204-594: The adoption of adjustable chairs have been well documented, anecdotal information shows that there has been no improvement. The following recommendations can be implemented as solutions to reduce burden of musculoskeletal disorders among worker in the garment industries: There are a wide range of chemicals utilized in textile production for dyeing and printing, which these workers can be exposed to. These chemicals include but are not limited to bleaching agents and azo dyes. Azo dyes, such as aniline and benzadine, accounting for over 50% of dyes produced annually as of 2006. This
17391-455: The advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system". Developing countries can also be categorized by geography: In general, the WTO accepts any country's claim of itself being "developing." Certain countries that have become "developed" in the last 20 years by almost all economic metrics, still insist to be classified as "developing country," as it entitles them to
17578-465: The application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use. One of the most visible conflicts over TRIPS has been AIDS drugs in Africa . Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement,
17765-472: The capability to collect such taxes from individuals. Tariffs were the greatest source of United States federal revenue (up to 95% at times) until the federal income tax began after 1913. For well over a century the federal government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. At the end of the American Civil War in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by
17952-568: The constant threat of flooding, declining jute fiber prices and a significant decrease in world demand, the contribution of the jute sector to the country's economy deteriorated. In 1972 the newly formed government of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman who was also the head of the Awami League , enacted the Bangladesh Industrial Enterprises (Nationalization) Order, taking over privately owned textile factories and creating
18139-399: The cost of imported goods) as well as the producers and workers in export sectors, both in the country implementing protectionist policies and in the countries against which the protections are implemented. Protectionism has been advocated mainly by parties that hold economic nationalist positions, while economically liberal political parties generally support free trade . There
18326-443: The cost of living for British workers, and hampered the British manufacturing sector by reducing the disposable incomes that British workers could have spent on manufactured goods. The shift towards liberalization in Britain occurred in part due to "the influence of economists like David Ricardo", but also due to "the growing power of urban interests". Findlay and O'Rourke characterize 1860 Cobden Chevalier treaty between France and
18513-549: The countries' capital markets as opposed to the overall economy. Under other criteria, some countries are at an intermediate stage of development, or, as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) put it, following the fall of the Soviet Union , "countries in transition": all those of Central and Eastern Europe (including Central European countries that still belonged to the "Eastern Europe Group" in
18700-403: The country's economy but has also generated employment opportunities for hundreds of thousands of rural women. Over the years, the female labor force participation rates have witnessed significant growth, surging from 26% in 1991 to an encouraging 42.68% by 2022. Under Mughal rule , Bengal Subah was a midpoint of the worldwide muslin and silk trades during the 16th to 18th centuries. During
18887-446: The country's exports. The results of surveys varied on the demographics and size of the ready-made garments industry at the time of the Harkin Bill. One study estimated that there were 600,000 workers in the industry., BGMEA estimate was c. 800,000. The Asian-American Free Labor Institute (AAFLI) reported that in 1994 females constituted about "90 percent of all adult workers, and roughly 60 percent of all child workers." According to
19074-437: The country's largest export industry. While there is a growing presence of women in small and medium enterprises. Garment workers have protested against their low wages. The first protests broke out in 2006, and since then, there have been periodic protests by the workers. This has forced the government to increase minimum wages of workers. Many textile factories in Bangladesh often compromise worker health and safety because of
19261-468: The creation of slums. In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities". Several forms of violence against women are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of
19448-410: The current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. The late global health expert Hans Rosling has argued against the terms, calling the concept "outdated" since the terms are used under the prerequisite that the world is divided in rich and poor countries, while the fact is that the vast majority of countries are middle-income. Given the lack of
19635-500: The cushion to prevent compression at the area of the ischial tuberosities . Even though some factories have sewing machines tables with height adjustability options 70 – 80 cm, workers rarely or never adjusted them because it takes between 10 and 15 minutes to adjust them. Moreover, workers experience excessive hand work that involves gripping and pinching with the arm in constrained postures which causes wrist pain. Sewing machine operators are involve in highly repetitive movements of
19822-470: The degree of separation presumably removes them of liability of wage and labor violations. It also makes it easier to distribute production across a variety of sources. The majority of the four million workers in the garment sector are women. There has also been notable progress in the rate of female entrepreneurship, particularly in smaller boutique-type industries. As of 2011 Bangladesh was second largest ready-made garments (RMG) manufacturer after China, by
20009-475: The early 1990s, the knit section expanded mainly producing and exporting shirts, T-shirts, trousers, sweaters and jackets. In 2006, 90 percent of Bangladesh's total earnings from garment exports came from its exports to the United States and Europe. Although there was concern, noted in an IMF report, that the WTO's Multi Fibre Arrangement, the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC), phase-out would shut down
20196-411: The early criticisms that questioned the use of the terms "developing" and "underdeveloped" countries was voiced in 1973 by prominent historian and academic Walter Rodney who compared the economic, social, and political parameters between the United States and countries in Africa and Asia. There is "no established convention" for defining "developing country". According to economist Jeffrey Sachs ,
20383-500: The economy of the countries. The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low income countries. Least developed countries , landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries . There are controversies over
20570-508: The economy underwent a major shift with the rise of the ready-made garment industry in Bangladesh. Estimates from the World Bank put the number of female workers in the industry in the 1980s at 50,000; that number was brought up to 2.85 million by 2008 and now probably lies over the 3 million mark. Traditionally the participation of women in Bangladesh's formal economy was minimal. Bangladesh's flagship export-oriented ready-made garment industry, however, with female labor accounting for 90 percent of
20757-494: The elbows and wrists. Researchers have found that doing activities for stitching that involves wrist flexion of more than 45° wrist extension 10-12 times per minute, put the worker at higher risk of developing wrist and elbow problems. These risk factors have a negative impact not only on the musculoskeletal health, but also on the medical cost, efficiency, and optimal performance on activities of daily living. Minimizing ergonomic risk factors through ergonomic intervention for workers
20944-503: The exception for a period of time of Spain and Russia. Up until the end of World War II, the United States had the most protectionist economy on Earth. The Bush administration implemented tariffs on Chinese steel in 2002 ; according to a 2005 review of existing research on the tariff, all studies found that the tariffs caused more harm than gains to the US economy and employment. The Obama administration implemented tariffs on Chinese tires between 2009 and 2012 as an anti-dumping measure ;
21131-429: The excise taxes, which exceeded the 25.4% generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30.1% of revenues. Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a declining percentage of Federal tax income. A 2016 study found that "trade typically favors the poor", as they spend a greater share of their earnings on goods, as free trade reduces the costs of goods. Other research found that China's entry to
21318-410: The export contracts of Western brands are with European buyers and about thirty percent with American buyers and ten percent to others. Only 5% of textile factories are owned by foreign investors, with most of the production being controlled by local investors. In the financial year 2016-2017 the RMG industry generated US$ 28.14 billion, which was 80.7% of the total export earnings in exports and 12.36% of
21505-400: The famine, the Bangladeshi government shifted public policy away from its concentration on a socialist economy, and began to denationalize, disinvest and reduce the role of the public sector in the textile industry while encouraging private sector participation. The 1974 New Investment Policy restored the rights to both private and foreign investors. Bangladesh's development model switched from
21692-498: The four million workers employed by the RMG industry, 85% are illiterate women from rural villages. The working environments and conditions of the factories that produce ready-made garments has undergone criticism in recent years concerning worker safety and fair wages. Subcontracting is a major component of the RMG industry in Bangladesh. Many Western companies contract different factories, only requesting that certain quotas be met at certain times. Companies prefer subcontracting because
21879-754: The further significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component: Access to water, sanitation and hygiene ( WASH ) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. The majority of these people live in developing countries. About 892 million people or 12 percent of
22066-551: The general public can access is substantially different between developing countries and developed countries. People in developing countries usually have a lower life expectancy than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health. The burden of infectious diseases, maternal mortality , child mortality and infant mortality are typically substantially higher in those countries. Developing countries also have less access to medical health services generally, and are less likely to have
22253-429: The global population, and is criticized for its imprecision. Historical and empirical evidence, like the varied infant mortality rates across these nations, underscores the flaws in a uniform classification. Alternatives such as regional or income-based categories (low-income to high-income) are advocated for, as they align better with the specific contexts of countries, supporting more effective policy formulation. Since
22440-547: The global population, practiced open defecation instead of using toilets in 2016. Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries. Countries with a high number of people openly defecating are India (348 million), followed by Nigeria (38.1 million), Indonesia (26.4 million), Ethiopia (23.1 million), Pakistan (19.7 million), Niger (14.6 million) and Sudan (9.7 million). Protectionist Protectionism , sometimes referred to as trade protectionism ,
22627-540: The goal of putting an end to this system. One of these institutions is the New International Economic Order . They have a 'no-strings-attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization. Coalitions of developing nations, like the NIEO, frequently lobby for parity in
22814-439: The government increase safety standards. The role of women is important in the debate as some argue that the textile industry has been an important means of economic security for women while others focus on the fact that women are disproportionately textile workers and thus are disproportionately victims of such accidents. Measures have been taken to ensure better working conditions, but many still argue that more can be done. Despite
23001-486: The government, to restrict imports and protect domestic producers from foreign competition, and to reach reciprocity agreements that reduce trade barriers." From 1790 to 1860, average tariffs increased from 20 percent to 60 percent before declining again to 20 percent. From 1861 to 1933, which Irwin characterizes as the "restriction period", the average tariffs increased to 50 percent and remained at that level for several decades. From 1934 onwards, which Irwin characterizes as
23188-403: The greatest exposure to noisy work environments are automobile drivers, traffic police, shopkeepers, road-side hawkers, and garment workers. Garment workers in Bangladesh face noise levels of 96-100 Decibels Adjusted (dBA), which is a significant contributor to NIHL among women textile workers in Bangladesh. There are options available to protect workers from chronic exposure to high noise levels in
23375-468: The hurdles, riding the growth wave, Bangladesh apparel making sector could reach 60 percent value addition threshold relying on the strong backwardly linked yarn-fabric making factories directly from imported raw cotton, reaching a new height of exports worth of US$ 30.61 billion in the fiscal year 2018. The garments industry in Bangladesh has achieved a remarkable feat, emerging as the leading global player and surpassing China. This sector has not only propelled
23562-406: The industry, and avoiding social projects such as education, healthcare, and disaster relief that would benefit their workers and the communities in which they operate. Despite these failings, authors Quddus and Salim argue that the success of the industry is largely attributable to these entrepreneurs. Bangladesh successfully competes in the manufacturing industry by maintaining "lowest labor costs in
23749-426: The industry, as the clothing sector has seen a positive growth in terms of RCA. Despite rating highly, Bangladesh's textile and clothing industries face several challenges that make access to their textile and clothing products unstable, such as a weak government and political turmoil. Of the millions of wage earning children in Bangladesh in 1990, almost all of them worked in the ready-made garment industry. Based on
23936-401: The inner ear. These two points illustrate how NIHL is a significant occupational health risk. Asia has, over the last 50 years, seen a significant growth in the manufacturing of both primary products and finished products. The increase in manufacturing has led to an increased exposure to high levels of noise and has contributed to increased NIHL among workers. In Bangladesh, occupations which have
24123-521: The late 1940s, it stifled agricultural production, exports and business sentiment, in general. Despite these shortcomings, protectionism and government credits did allow an exponential growth of the internal market: radio sales increased 600% and fridge sales grew 218%, among others. During this period Argentina's economy continued to grow, on average, but more slowly than the world as a whole or than its neighbors, Brazil and Chile. By 1950, Argentina's GDP per capita accounted fell to less than half of that of
24310-421: The late 1990s, countries identified by the UN as developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than those in the developed countries category. To moderate the euphemistic aspect of the word "developing", international organizations have started to use the term less economically developed country for the poorest nations – which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. This highlights that
24497-689: The latter. Many developing countries have only attained full self-determination and democracy after the second half of the 20th century. Many were governed by an imperial European power until decolonization . Political systems in developing countries are diverse, but most states had established some form of democratic governments by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success and political liberty . The inhabitants of developing countries were introduced to democratic systems later and more abruptly than their Northern counterparts and were sometimes targeted by governmental and non-governmental efforts to encourage participation. 'Effective citizenship '
24684-531: The levels workers were generally exposed to, there was concern with long term or accidental over-exposure. This long term or excessive exposure can sensitize the worker's immune system, leading to hypersensitivity reactions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis on subsequent exposure as mentioned above. Additionally, studies have demonstrated concerns regarding exposure to textile dyes and occupational bladder cancer due to aniline dye intermediates such as beta-naphthylamine and benzidine, which has long been identified as
24871-403: The liberal era of low tariffs and free trade. One study found that tariffs imposed on manufactured goods increase economic growth in developing countries, and this growth impact remains even after the tariffs are repealed. According to Dartmouth economist Douglas Irwin , "that there is a correlation between high tariffs and growth in the late nineteenth century cannot be denied. But correlation
25058-420: The liver and kidneys and may even decrease fertility. One work environment health risk that often gets overlooked is noise induced hearing loss (NIHL). NIHL has recently become one of the biggest occupational disease risks with occupational NIHL contributing to 16% of global deafness. Chronic exposure to high decibels can lead to the development of NIHL among manufacturing workers by damaging sensory hair cells in
25245-508: The main export sector and a major source of foreign exchange starting in 1980, and exported about US$ 5 billion in 2002. In 1980 an export processing zone was officially established in at the port of Chittagong . By 1981, 300 textile companies, many small ones had been denationalized often returned to their original owners. In 1982, shortly after coming to power following a bloodless coup, President Hussain Muhammad Ershad introduced
25432-445: The manufacturing sector. In 1972, the World Bank approximated the gross domestic product (GDP) of Bangladesh at US$ 6.29 billion, and it grew to $ 368 billion by 2021, with $ 46 billion of that generated by exports, 82% of which was ready-made garments. As of 2016 Bangladesh held the 2nd place in producing garments just after China. Bangladesh is the world's second-largest apparel exporter of Western fast fashion brands. Sixty percent of
25619-625: The member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It establishes minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of different forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO. Statements by
25806-733: The modern trade arena, many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist. For example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati , see developed countries' efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism. Also, the imposition of restrictive certification procedures on imports is seen in this light. Further, others point out that free trade agreements often have protectionist provisions such as intellectual property, copyright , and patent restrictions that benefit large corporations. These provisions restrict trade in music, movies, pharmaceuticals, software, and other manufactured items to high-cost producers with quotas from low-cost producers set to zero. In
25993-424: The neck and back, and eventually to pain. A case study conducted by Habib M. among sewing machines operators in Bangladesh, found that the high risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders was related to working in a sitting position bending the neck more than 30° for more than 6 to 7 hours. Additionally, sitting in a forward flexed posture causes the lumbar spine to flatten that leads to an imbalanced disc pressure and
26180-466: The next five years Bangladesh will become the largest ready-made garments manufacturer. Bangladesh was the sixth largest exporter of apparel in the world after China, the EU, Hong Kong, Turkey and India in 2006. In 2006 Bangladesh's share in the world apparel exports was 2.8%. The US was the largest single market with US$ 3.23 billion in exports, a 30% share in 2007. Today, the US remains the largest market for Bangladesh's woven garments taking US$ 2.42 billion,
26367-478: The opening up of New World frontiers, and the subsequent "grain invasion" of Europe, led to higher agricultural tariffs from the late 1870s onwards, which as we have seen reversed the move toward freer trade that had characterized mid-nineteenth-century Europe. In the decades after World War II, Japan's rapid rise led to trade friction with other countries. Japan's recovery was accompanied by a sharp increase in its exports of certain product categories: cotton textiles in
26554-763: The other hand, the physical hazards include exposures to toxic agents, awkward postures and repetitive motion. Exposure to sexual, verbal and psychological harassment and violence at their work places are some of the common mental health hazards. These hazards not only affect the female workers’ mental and physical being but also the quality of work and productivity of workforce nationwide. Musculoskeletal disorders have been identified as an important concern among textile workers. These complaints are related to highly repetitive movements, awkward postures in seated positions, repetitive hand and arm movements, prolonged working hours without adequate breaks and poorly designed work stations. These risk factors result in adverse health outcomes of
26741-471: The people it is intended to help. Mainstream economists instead support free trade. The principle of comparative advantage shows that the gains from free trade outweigh any losses as free trade creates more jobs than it destroys because it allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Protectionism results in deadweight loss ; this loss to overall welfare gives no-one any benefit, unlike in
26928-475: The post-World War II period. Alexander Hamilton , the first United States Secretary of the Treasury , was of the view, as articulated most famously in his " Report on Manufactures ", that developing an industrialized economy was impossible without protectionism because import duties are necessary to shelter domestic " infant industries " until they could achieve economies of scale . The industrial takeoff of
27115-482: The power of free trade on the eve of World War I . They believed that the interconnectedness of European nations through trade would stop a continent-wide war from breaking out, as the economic consequences would be too great. However, the assumption proved incorrect. For example, Tuchman noted that Helmuth von Moltke the Younger , when warned of such consequences, refused to even consider them in his plans, arguing he
27302-530: The presentation of its data, considering the two-category distinction outdated. Accordingly, World Bank is phasing out use of that descriptor. Instead, the reports by Worldbank (such as the WDI and the Global Monitoring Report ) now include data aggregations for the whole world, for regions, and for income groups – but not for the "developing world". The term low and middle-income country (LMIC)
27489-512: The process of sand blasting, a worker sprays the potassium permanganate on a specific area on the denim garment with a hose or a brush. It is then washed off, leaving the chemical treated area a lighter color than the surrounding untreated area. When the potassium permanganate dries, bleach is sprayed on top of the previously treated area to neutralize potassium permanganate and is then washed a second time. There are multiple exposure routes for potassium permanganate to cause serious adverse reactions to
27676-650: The realm. The Navigation Acts of the late 17th century required all trade to be carried in English ships, manned by English crews (this later encompassed all Britons after the Acts of Union 1707 united Scotland with England). Colonists were required to send their produce and raw materials first of all to Britain, where the surplus was then sold-on by British merchants to other colonies in the British empire or bullion-earning external markets. The colonies were forbidden to trade directly with other nations or rival empires. The goal
27863-520: The resources to purchase, produce and administer vaccines , even though vaccine equity worldwide is important to combatting pandemics , such as the COVID-19 pandemic . Undernutrition is more common in developing countries. Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women – in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding – children under five years of age, and the elderly. Malnutrition in children and stunted growth of children
28050-401: The rural areas that previously did not have any opportunity to be part of the formal workforce. This has given women the chance to be financially independent and have a voice in the family because now they contribute financially. However, women workers face problems. Most women come from low income families. Low wage of women workers and their compliance have enabled the industry to compete with
28237-457: The safety of bovine growth hormone , sometimes used to boost dairy production, led to hearings before the Senate of Canada , resulting in a ban in Canada. Thus, supply management of milk products is consumer protection of Canadians. Most Latin American countries gained independence in the early 19th century, with notable exceptions including Spanish Cuba and Spanish Puerto Rico . Following
28424-429: The same laws of nature, yet each with unique features. The term "developing" refers to a current situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of development. Additionally, the term "developing world" is increasingly seen as outdated, suggesting a hierarchy and not accurately reflecting the diverse realities of the encompassed countries. This term includes 135 low- or middle-income countries, covering 84% of
28611-417: The second leading exporter in the world after China in 2015 according to an estimate by Khurram Shahzad who applied data derived from the World Trade Organization to Balassa's revealed comparative advantages (RCA) index. Shazad found that Bangladesh fell between Pakistan and India in regards to comparative advantages in textiles, but held the highest RCA for clothing. Private actors maintain a positive outlook on
28798-570: The sewing machine table, chair and paddle positions should be adjusted considering the worker's body height in a sitting position. The workers should be educated about the significance of postures on their health so that they do not neglect the instructions. Up to the mid-1990s there was little evidence available that suggested that improvement involving ergonomics principles have been implemented in garment factories in South East Asia. Even though, solutions such as work surface modification and
28985-418: The skin and respiratory tract. Once this sensitization has occurred, an individual becomes more susceptible to developing allergic disease on subsequent contact with the offending agent. Exposure from these chemicals typically occurs via direct contact with the skin or inhalation of dye particles. While as of 2006 there was no evidence to suggest that most dyestuffs then in use in these industries were harmful at
29172-566: The so-called late-Victorian climacteric in the British economy: a decline in the growth rate, i.e. a deceleration. During the interwar era, Britain abandoned free trade. There was a limited erosion of free trade during the 1920s under a patchwork of legislation including the Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1921 , the Safeguarding of Industries Act of 1925 , and the Finance Act of 1925 . The McKenna Duties , which were imposed during
29359-536: The standard of living across the entire developing world varies greatly. In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing / developed world categorization" had become less relevant, due to worldwide improvements in indices such as child mortality rates, fertility rates and extreme poverty rates. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators (WDI), the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between "developed" and "developing" countries in
29546-534: The study. Exposing the dangers of sandblasting has forced government agencies to step in and attempt to contain and control the amount of dust exposure. One method of containing the silica dust is the addition of water. Average respirable particulate levels drastically declined after water spray controls were installed in a stone crusher mill in India. This measure brought to light the effectiveness of reducing silica exposure through relatively inexpensive modifications. It may take time to get these factories to comply with
29733-700: The support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. While the United Kingdom espoused a policy of free trade in the late nineteenth century, it was hardly the case that Britain was unaffected by the tariffs imposed by its trade partners--tariffs that generally increased during the late nineteenth century. According to one study, Britain's exports in 1902 would have been 57% higher, if all of Britain's trade partners also embraced free trade. The decline in overseas demand for British exports, resulting from foreign tariffs, contributed to
29920-1226: The term's use, as some feel that it perpetuates an outdated concept of "us" and "them" . In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing/developed world categorization" had become less relevant and that they will phase out the use of that descriptor. Instead, their reports will present data aggregations for regions and income groups. The term " Global South " is used by some as an alternative term to developing countries. Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common often due to their histories or geographies. For example, they commonly have: lower levels of access to safe drinking water , sanitation and hygiene , energy poverty , higher levels of pollution (e.g. air pollution , littering , water pollution , open defecation ), higher proportions of people with tropical and infectious diseases ( neglected tropical diseases ), more road traffic accidents , and generally poorer quality infrastructure . In addition, there are also often high unemployment rates, widespread poverty , widespread hunger , extreme poverty , child labour , malnutrition , homelessness , substance abuse , prostitution , overpopulation , civil disorder , human capital flight ,
30107-475: The textile and clothing (T&C) industry, the Bangladesh textile sector actually grew tremendously after 2004 and reached an export turnover of US$ 10.7 billion in FY 2007. Bangladesh was expected to suffer the most from the ending of the MFA, as it was expected to face more competition, particularly from China. However, this was not the case. It turns out that even in the face of other economic giants, Bangladesh's labor
30294-475: The textile industry, like most industries in East Pakistan , were largely owned by West Pakistanis. During that period, in the 1960s, local Bengali entrepreneurs had set up their own large textile and jute factories. Following its separation from West Pakistan, the newly formed Bangladesh lost access to both capital and technical expertise. Until the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971, the textile sector
30481-489: The textile industry. Some simple measures which could be implemented on machinery would include such actions as decreasing noise and creating noise barriers. For workers, the use of personal protective equipment, as well as the establishing maximum daily exposures, can go a long way to mitigate worker exposures to chronic noise. As of 2000, garment entrepreneurs had a reputation for bribery, shirking custom duties, evading corporate taxes, making inadequate long-term investments in
30668-408: The time that happened, the economy would be recovering, giving the impression that tariff cuts caused the crash and the reverse generated the recovery. 'Mr. Irwin' also attempts to debunk the idea that protectionism made America a great industrial power, a notion believed by some to offer lessons for developing countries today. As its share of global manufacturing powered from 23% in 1870 to 36% in 1913,
30855-446: The tough pressure from the ordering companies to make tight deadlines. Management will often push workers in order to ensure that an order is fulfilled. This poses a problem as workers have almost no avenues with which to file a complaint. Almost none of the factories have any sort of human resources department and local officials often turn a blind eye to violations. Moreover, most of these workers are poor women. Without any structure like
31042-533: The urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in slums . In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%) and East Asia (28%). The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries live in slums. Slums form and grow in different parts of
31229-456: The work force, was "built to a large extent, on the supply of cheap and flexible female labor in the country." By 2001 the textile industry employed about 3 million workers of whom 90% were women. In 2004 garment sector remained the largest employer of women in Bangladesh. By 2013, there were approximately 5,000 garment factories, employing about 4 million people, mostly women. The garment sector has provided employment opportunities to women from
31416-660: The worker, these are: dermal contact, contact with the eye, inhalation and ingestion. When potassium permanganate comes in contact with the skin, it can cause irritation, deep burns, rashes and even dying of the skin. If potassium permanganate is exposed to the eye, severe irritation as well as permanent eye damage is possible. Inhalation of potassium permanganate can irritate the respiratory tract and can even lead to chronic lung diseases such as asthma, silicosis, and pulmonary edema . Ingestion of potassium permanganate causes severe nausea and diarrhea and lastly, some rare cases, chronic exposure to potassium permanganate could adversely affect
31603-399: The workers such as musculoskeletal complaints of neck, back, hands, shoulders and lower limbs. Most of the female workers in garments factories work as sewing operators, sewing operator helper, cutting personnel and finishing personnel. Sewing machines operators usually work in seated postures with forward flexion of the head, neck, and torso for long periods of time. This results in strain on
31790-402: The world for many reasons. Causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration , economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment , poverty, informal economy , forced or manipulated ghettoization , poor planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts . For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people move to cities in extensive urban migration that results in
31977-695: The world market. Women are paid far less than men mainly due to their lack of education. Women are reluctant to unionize because factory owners threaten to fire them. Even though trade unionization is banned inside the Export processing Zones (EPZ) , the working environment is better than that of the majority of garment factories that operate outside the EPZs. But, pressure from buyers to abide by labor codes has enabled factories to maintain satisfactory working conditions. Three million women are currently employed in Bangladesh's thriving ready-made garment sector, which stands as
32164-495: The world stage. The rise of China might imply the rise of the BRIC countries . The global issues most often discussed by developing countries include globalisation , global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is contrasted by issues developed nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and technology. Most developing countries have these criteria in common: According to UN-Habitat , around 33% of
32351-414: The world", meaning that its finished goods were produced so efficiently and cheaply that they could often undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in almost any other market. By the 1840s, the United Kingdom had adopted a free-trade policy, meaning open markets and no tariffs throughout the empire. The Corn Laws were tariffs and other trade restrictions on imported food and corn enforced in
32538-479: The world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita calculated using the Atlas method , re-set each year on 1 July: The three groups that are not "high income" are together referred to as "low and middle income countries" (LMICs). For example, for the 2022 fiscal year, a low income country is defined as one with a GNI per capita less than 1,045 in current US$ ; a lower middle-income country
32725-466: The world. Juan Perón erected a system of almost complete protectionism against imports, largely cutting off Argentina from the international market in the 1940s. Protectionism created a domestically oriented industry with high production costs, incapable of competing in international markets. At the same time, output of beef and grain, the country's main export goods, stagnated. The IAPI began shortchanging growers and, when world grain prices dropped in
32912-607: The world. Acid throwing is associated with Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania. Female genital mutilation (FGM)
33099-471: The world." Garment workers' minimum wage was set at roughly $ 37 a month in 2012 but since 2010 Bangladesh's double-digit inflation with no corresponding rise in minimum wage and labor rights, has led to protests. Following labour disputes in 2013, the minimum wage was raised to the equivalent of $ 68 a month. Many workers profited from the increase, but it was also expected to attract more young girls to factories. Developing country A developing country
33286-579: Was a "soldier," not an "economist." The ongoing Russo-Ukraine War began in the aftermath of the Revolution of Dignity and the signing of the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement in 2014, which included a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area for Ukraine and the European Union (EU). The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all
33473-449: Was able to meet demand for every quota each year and was able to successfully negotiate for higher quotas for subsequent years. The export of ready-made garments (RMG) increased from US$ 3.5 million in 1981 to $ 10.7 billion in 2007. Apparel exports grew, but initially, the ready-made garments RMG industry was not adequately supported by the growth up and down the domestic supply chain (e.g., spinning, weaving, knitting, fabric processing, and
33660-828: Was an early entrant in Bangladesh, when it established a joint venture on 27 December 1977 with Desh Garments Ltd. making it the first export oriented ready-made garment industry in Bangladesh. After only one year in which 130 Desh supervisors and managers received free training from Daewoo in production and marketing at Daewoo's state-of-the-art ready-made garment plant in Korea, 115 of the 130 left Desh Garments Ltd. and set up separate private garment export firms or began working for other newly formed export-oriented RMG companies with new garment factories in Bangladesh for much higher salaries than Desh Garments Ltd offered. Global restructuring processes, including two non-market factors, such as quotas under Multi Fibre Arrangement (MFA) (1974–2005) in
33847-932: Was conquered by the British East India Company after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Bengal Presidency was founded in 1765. British colonization forced open the Bengali market to British goods, while at the same time Britain implemented protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs that restricted imports of Bengali cotton cloth to Britain. Britain imported raw cotton from Bengal, without taxes or tariffs, for British factories, which used it to manufacture textiles, many of which were exported back to Bengal. British economic policies led to deindustrialization in Bengal. From 1947 to 1971
34034-533: Was due to their high stability in light and washing as well as resistance to microbial activity. The toxic effects of these dyes include hypersensitivity and irritant effects such as contact dermatitis and asthma, as well as exposure related concerns for such malignancies as bladder, nasal, esophagus, stomach, colon, rectal, nasopharyngeal and lung cancers. Studies have postulated that hypersensitivity effects may be due to alterations in neutrophil function and sensitization, contributing to chronic inflammatory diseases of
34221-467: Was positively correlated with economic and industrial growth during the 19th century. For example, GNP growth during Europe's "liberal period" in the middle of the century (where tariffs were at their lowest), averaged 1.7% per year, while industrial growth averaged 1.8% per year. However, during the protectionist era of the 1870s and 1890s, GNP growth averaged 2.6% per year, while industrial output grew at 3.8% per year, roughly twice as fast as it had during
34408-404: Was primarily part of the process of import substitution industrialization (ISI) to replace imports. After the liberation, Bangladesh adopted export-oriented industrialization (EOI) by focusing on the textile and clothing industry , particularly the readymade garment (RMG) sector. Immediately after the founding of Bangladesh (1971), tea and jute were the most export-oriented sectors. But with
34595-647: Was temporarily suspended for Bangladesh by President Obama after the Rana Plaza collapse in 2013. Md. Samsul Alam and Kaoru Natsuda's survey of Bangladeshi garment firms, conducted in 2012, found that they almost unanimously credited the low cost of labor as the main contributor to the industry's growth in Bangladesh. Some Bangladeshi companies have purchased machinery and technology to increase efficiency, such as computerized cutting and spreading machinery, sewing machines, and barcode-enable inventory management systems. Market access and trade policy also have played
34782-524: Was the centrepiece of the British Empire, and because of an efficient taxation system it paid its own administrative expenses as well as the cost of the large British Indian Army . In terms of trade, India turned only a small profit for British business. However, transfers to the British government was massive: in 1801 unrequited (unpaid, or paid from Indian-collected revenue) was about 30% of British domestic savings available for capital formation in
34969-448: Was to maintain the North American and Caribbean colonies as dependent agricultural economies geared towards producing raw materials for export to Britain. The growth of native industry was discouraged, in order to keep the colonies dependent on the United Kingdom for their finished goods. From 1815 to 1870, the United Kingdom reaped the benefits of being the world's first modern, industrialised nation. It described itself as "the workshop of
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