125-714: Pietro Koch (18 August 1918 – 4 June 1945) was an Italian soldier and leader of the Banda Koch , a group notorious for its anti-partisan activity in the Republic of Salò . The son of an Imperial German Navy officer, Koch was born in Benevento . Koch served as a lieutenant in the Grenadiers where he was unpopular with his fellow soldiers and was dismissed from the Royal Italian Army in 1939 for insulting
250-683: A truce with Allied forces, without consulting either Mussolini or Hitler. Smaller units like the Black Brigades ( Brigate nere ) led by Alessandro Pavolini and the Decima Flottiglia MAS led by Junio Valerio Borghese (called " principe nero ", the Black Prince) fought for the RSI during its entire existence. The Germans were satisfied if these units were able to participate in anti-partisan activities . In March 1944,
375-722: A "sawdust Caesar ". The new government began secret negotiations with the Allied powers and made preparations for the capitulation of Italy. These surrender talks implied a commitment from Badoglio to leave the Axis alliance . While the Germans formally recognised the new status quo in Italian politics, they intervened by sending some of the best units of the Wehrmacht to Italy. This was done both to resist new Allied advances and to face
500-554: A civil or military nature." The organization was proposed by General Francesco Paladino . With German agreement, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani appointed Paladino its first director on 6 October 1943. Its headquarters was initially in Rome and it was under the authority of the Ministry of Defence. Women volunteers served in uniform as noncombatants in paramilitary units and police formations ( Servizio Ausiliario Femminile ). The commander
625-645: A completely totalitarian state . During the preceding twenty years of the Fascist association with the Savoy monarchy of the Kingdom of Italy, some of the actions of the Fascists had been restricted by the monarchy. However, the formation of the RSI allowed Mussolini to be the official head of an Italian state and it also allowed the Fascists to return to their earlier republican stances. In one way or another, most of
750-463: A long stay has been accompanied by "hit and run" tourism, with a short stop, just for the weekend or even for a few hours. The first is fed by tourists who want to spend their holidays on the lake, coming from different areas (in addition to Italians, numerous Germans, French, Swiss and Dutch), while the second is fed by those who live a short distance from the lake and who want to spend a few hours there. Both types of tourism have caused notable changes in
875-678: A new Fascist state under the protection of the Wehrmacht. Mussolini balked; he was tired of the responsibilities of the war and unwilling to retake power. Hitler told him the alternative would be a German military administration that would treat Italy no differently from other occupied countries. Hitler also threatened to destroy Milan , Genoa and Turin unless Mussolini agreed to set up a revived Fascist government. Reluctantly, Mussolini agreed to Hitler's demands. Mussolini returned to Italy and settled in Milan, from where on 15 September he announced
1000-552: A new constitution, but that was cancelled by Mussolini on 14 November 1943 and delayed until after the end of the war. The disintegration of the Italian Social Republic at the end of the war meant that no new constitution was written. The RSI was led by the Republican Fascist Party , established on 18 September 1943 out of the disbanded National Fascist Party . The party's official newspaper
1125-724: A piè de l'Alpe che serra Lamagna sovra Tiralli, c'ha nome Benaco. Above in beauteous Italy lies a lake, At the Alp's foot that shuts in Germany Over Tyrol, and has the name Benaco. After the collapse of the Roman Empire , the Garda region witnessed the passage of numerous Germanic populations, but the first one that settled there, after a long migration, was that of the Lombards . Their testimonies are mostly present along
1250-622: A second political party called the National Republican Socialist Rally (RNRS), later rebranded as the Italian Socialist Republican Party) under the leadership of Edmondo Cione. The party supported a leftist view of fascism strongly focused on the socialization of the economy, and included several former socialists, such as Pulvio Zocchi, Carlo Silvestri, and Walter Mocchi. It also published a newspaper called L'Italia del Popolo . It
1375-734: A single wind may have different names. Lake Garda is rich in biodiversity . Salmo carpio , also known as the carpione ( carpione del Garda or Lake Garda carpione ) is a rare salmonid fish endemic to Lake Garda. It has been introduced to a number of other lakes in Italy and elsewhere but unsuccessfully in all cases. The population in Lake Garda has been strongly declining, and is considered critically endangered ( IUCN 3.1 ). The main threats are due to overfishing, pollution and possibly competition from introduced species such as Coregonus and other Salmonidae . Adult lake trout outside
SECTION 10
#17327729817771500-578: A superior officer. Recalled on the eve of the war, he saw continuous service until the armistice of September 1943, after which he moved to Florence . Settling in the Social Republic in the north of Italy, Koch joined the Special Service of Republican Police led by Tullio Tamburini . In January 1944, he established the Banda Koch as a special task force charged with hunting down partisans and rounding up deportees, including Jews, for
1625-535: Is also sailed there every year. Ship transport is provided by Navigazione Laghi . A daily ferry service connects major towns on the eastern and western shores of Lake Garda. The service runs from Desenzano del Garda to Riva del Garda , via Peschiera del Garda , Salò and Malcesine . The region can be reached directly via the Milan-Venice railway , with Desenzano-Sirmione and Peschiera railway station . Buses are faster alternatives to ferry services. On
1750-540: Is created by the presence of a fault submerged between Sirmione and Punta San Vigilio which is almost a natural barrier that hampers the homogenization between the water of the two zones. If the water level of the Adige River is excessive, water is diverted to the lake through the Mori-Torbole tunnel . The Lake Garda area is considered one of the most seismic in Italy. The oldest known earthquake that struck
1875-519: Is mostly depended on tourism. Back to Roman times, especially from the early imperial age, magnificent villas were present on the shores of the lake, conceived as places dedicated to otium , an activity actually reserved for the ruling classes. In particular Sirmione was a privileged place for the presence of sulphurous springs that allowed thermal use. Starting from the Renaissance the lake returned to be populated with noble villas. Tourism in
2000-656: Is the largest lake in Italy. It is a popular holiday location in northern Italy, between Brescia and Milan to the west, and Verona and Venice to the east. The lake cuts into the edge of the Italian Alps , particularly the Alpine sub-ranges of the Garda Mountains and the Brenta Group . Glaciers formed this alpine region at the end of the last ice age . The lake and its shoreline are divided between
2125-690: The Adriatic Sea and five in the Black Sea ) and one larger submarine, CM1 . Troops of the Decima Flottiglia MAS (the elite Italian frogman corps) fought primarily as a land unit of the RSI. Some of the naval personnel at the BETASOM submarine base in Bordeaux , France , remained loyal to Mussolini. The fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and the disbandment of the MVSN or " Blackshirts " saw
2250-791: The Allied landings in Sicily , on a motion by Dino Grandi , the Grand Council of Fascism voted a motion of no confidence in Prime Minister Benito Mussolini . Mussolini's authority had been undermined by a series of military defeats from the start of Italy's entry into the war during June 1940, including the bombing of Rome , the loss of the African colonies in the East African and North African campaigns ,
2375-673: The Allies . Along with police chief Pietro Caruso , who was independently involved in the killing of partisans, Koch was behind hundreds of deaths; the Social Republic government even ordered an amnesty for political prisoners not charged with murder out of fear that Koch would have them killed. Disliked even by Benito Mussolini for his violent extremism , Il Duce eventually had his close ally Renzo Montagna arrest Koch for his excesses in October 1944. He soon fell into Allied hands,
2500-607: The Cisalpine Republic (later transformed into Italian Republic and then again in Kingdom of Italy , always under French control. In 1815 following the definitive defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte , during the Congress of Vienna it was decided to create the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia : in this way, the whole Garda region returned to Austrian hands. The First Italian War of Independence saw an initial slow advance of
2625-463: The Grand Council of Fascism —with the support of King Victor Emmanuel III — overthrew and arrested Mussolini . The new government began secret peace negotiations with the Allied powers but when the Armistice of Cassibile was announced on 8 September, Nazi Germany was prepared and quickly intervened. German troops seized control of the northern half of Italy , freed Mussolini , and brought him to
SECTION 20
#17327729817772750-573: The Independent State of Croatia (NDH) declared that the Treaties of Rome of 18 May 1941 with the Kingdom of Italy were null and void and annexed the portion of Dalmatia that had been ceded to Italy as part of those treaties. The NDH attempted to annex Zara , which had been a recognized territory of Italy since 1919, but Germany prevented the NDH from doing this. Because of these actions,
2875-683: The LXXXXVII "Liguria" Army under Graziani and were placed to guard the western flank of the Gothic Line facing France. The fourth RSI division, the 1st Italian "Italia" Infantry Division , was attached to the German 14th Army in a sector of the Apennine Mountains thought least likely to be attacked. On 26 December 1944, several sizeable RSI military units, including elements of the 4th Italian "Monterosa Division" Alpine Division and
3000-483: The National Republican State of Italy (Italian: Stato Nazionale Repubblicano d'Italia ; SNRI ), but more popularly known as the Republic of Salò (Italian: Repubblica di Salò , Italian: [reˈpubblika di saˈlɔ] ), was a German puppet state and fascist rump state with limited diplomatic recognition that was created during the latter part of World War II . It existed from
3125-625: The Neolithic the populations that inhabited the lake came into contact with the square-mouthed vases culture , as evidenced by the objects accompanying some tombs from this period found near Arco . The greatest evidence of human presence in prehistoric times dates back to the Bronze Age , when numerous aggregates of stilt houses arose in the lower lake before being abandoned during the Iron Age in favour of more strategic points. Lake Garda
3250-507: The Po Valley , so many winds typical of the lake are the result of a difference between lower and higher altitude temperatures. Due to this, winds are generated that descend from the mountains to the plains in the morning and go back to the mountains in the afternoon. The bottleneck formed by the lake basin affects the timing of the winds, many of which happen on a regular daily basis. The winds are all named, most in regional Italian dialect so
3375-440: The de facto capital became the small town of Salò on Lake Garda, midway between Milan and Venice , where Mussolini resided along with the foreign office of the RSI. While Rome itself was still under Axis control at the time, given the city's proximity to Allied lines and the threat of civil unrest, neither the Germans nor Mussolini himself wanted him to return to Rome. On 18 September, Mussolini made his first public address to
3500-516: The de facto capital was Salò (hence the colloquial name of the state), a small town on Lake Garda , near Brescia , where Mussolini and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were headquartered. The Italian Social Republic nominally exercised sovereignty in Northern and Central Italy , but was largely dependent on German troops to maintain control. In July 1943, after the Allies had pushed Italy out of North Africa and subsequently invaded Sicily ,
3625-414: The olive tree , parasol pine , mediterranean cypress , chinese windmill palm and Canary Island Date Palm . Some hardy citrus trees, such as hardy lemons and satsuma can also be found, which are extremely rare at this latitude (46° North). In ancient times, poets like Catullus wrote about "Lacus Benacus" with its mild climate vivified by the winds. The lake is oriented from north to south towards
3750-635: The 3rd Italian "San Marco" Marine Division, participated in Operation Winter Storm . This was a combined German and Italian offensive against the United States Army 's 92nd Infantry Division . The battle was fought in the Apennines. While limited in scale, this was a successful offensive and the RSI units did their part. The RSI military was under the command of General Alfredo Guzzoni while Field Marshal Rodolfo Graziani ,
3875-645: The Adige valley with the Garda. Two pagi were also established: pagus Benacenses on Brescia and pagus Claudienses on Verona. In 268 AD the Battle of Lake Benacus was fought between the army of the Roman Empire , commanded by the future emperor Claudius Gothicus , and the German federation of the Alamanni . The overwhelming victory obtained by the Romans allowed the expulsion of Alemanni from northern Italy, due to
Pietro Koch - Misplaced Pages Continue
4000-532: The Austrians repeatedly bombed Gargnano and tried to impose their dominance. Despite the humiliating Italian defeat, in 1866 Veneto was finally handed over to the Kingdom of Italy , except for the northern part of the lake which still remained under Austrian control. During the First World War towns on Lake Garda were bombed several times. On 23 July 1915, the first aerial bombardment took place in
4125-582: The Austrians. Numerous clashes took place between the adversaries on the battlefield of Lake Garda. In 1797 the French occupied Mantua , while Brescia valleys and towns on the lake rose up against the Napoleonic forces, even if the Republic of Venice maintained its neutral status and did not send aid to rescue. The Veronese, on the other hand, autonomously organized expeditions against the centres occupied by
4250-677: The Axis forces north of the Gothic Line , Mussolini declared that "he would fight to the last Italian" and spoke of turning Milan into the " Stalingrad of Italy", where Fascism would make its last glorious fight. Despite such strong rhetoric, Mussolini considered evacuating Fascists into Switzerland, although this was opposed by Germany, which instead proposed that Mussolini and key Fascist officials be taken into exile in Germany. Further disintegration of support for his government occurred as fascist and German military officials secretly tried to negotiate
4375-613: The Banda Koch on Germany's behalf. The RSI took revenge against the 19 members who had voted against Mussolini on the Grand Council with the Verona trial ( processo di Verona ) which handed down a death sentence to all of the accused but one. Only six of the 19 were in RSI custody ( Giovanni Marinelli , Carlo Pareschi , Luciano Gottardi , Tullio Cianetti , Emilio De Bono and Mussolini's own son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano ). With
4500-473: The French, but were defeated and forced to retreat to Verona, where on 17 April the anti-French insurrections called " Pasque Veronesi " ( Pasque Veronesi ) began. ". On 17 October the Treaty of Campoformio was signed: the southwestern shores went to the French, while the north-eastern ones went to the Austrians. In 1799 the war continued until the following year the lake returned to French hands: it became part of
4625-492: The Garda area, probably began in 225 BC, when there was a treaty of alliance between Cenomani, Veneti and Romans, even if the actual Romanization of the territory took place between the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. In 89 BC the rights of Latin cities were granted to the Garda areas by the will of the Roman consul Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo , while forty years later Roman citizenship was finally granted to Brixia (whose countryside included
4750-504: The Garda region seems to have occurred in 243 (or perhaps 245): it was so disastrous that the city of Benaco, located where Toscolano Maderno stands today, suddenly disappeared. The disappearance of the town is probably due to the cracking and landslide of the mountain above Toscolano, which caused the flooding of a small lake enclosed by the mountains, whose waters submerged the populous town. Other earthquakes, more or less intense, followed one another periodically: in 793, when according to
4875-617: The German command settled in Limone and, on 10 October, that of Benito Mussolini in Gargnano. The Ministry of Defense was located in Desenzano; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Popular Culture and the press agencies settled in Salò, which became the capital of the newborn Fascist Italy . At the end, Mussolini was strung up on a lamppost in his Lake Garda enclave . Fasano was
5000-414: The German orbit, did not recognize it. Unofficial relations were maintained with Argentina , Portugal , Spain , and, through commercial agent, Switzerland . Vatican City did not recognize the RSI. Around 25 April 1945, 19 months after its founding, the RSI all but collapsed . In Italy, the day is known as Liberation Day ( festa della liberazione ). On that day, a general partisan uprising, alongside
5125-485: The German-occupied area to establish a satellite regime. The Italian Social Republic was proclaimed on 23 September 1943. Although the RSI claimed sovereignty over all of Italy and its colonies, its de facto jurisdiction only extended to a vastly reduced portion of the country. The RSI received diplomatic recognition only from the Axis powers and their satellite states. Finland and Vichy France , although in
Pietro Koch - Misplaced Pages Continue
5250-471: The Germans after the armistice and so resistance to the German takeover was scattered and of little effect. King Victor Emmanuel made no effort to rally resistance to the Germans, instead fleeing with his retinue to the safety of the Allied lines. On 10 September 1943, after two days of battle between the Wehrmacht and the remnants of the Royal Italian Army , Rome fell to the Germans. The new Italian government had moved Mussolini from place to place while he
5375-511: The Germans. Koch came under the protection of SS- Obersturmbannführer Herbert Kappler , SD chief in Koch's base of Rome , and as such had a free hand to employ whatever tactics he saw fit with Banda Koch, which soon became a by-word for cruelty and violence. Koch was given his own prisons and torture chambers and continued his activity in Florence and then Milan following the fall of Rome to
5500-479: The Italian people since his rescue, in which he commended the loyalty of Hitler as an ally while condemning Victor Emmanuel for betraying Italian Fascism. He declared: "It is not the regime that has betrayed the monarchy, it is the monarchy that has betrayed the regime". He also formally repudiated his previous support of the monarchy, saying: "When a monarchy fails in its duties, it loses every reason for being…The state we want to establish will be national and social in
5625-415: The Italian population, his liberation made it possible for a new German-dependent Fascist Italian state to be created. Timeline Three days following his rescue in the Gran Sasso raid, Mussolini was taken to Germany for a meeting with Hitler in Rastenburg at his headquarters in East Prussia . While Mussolini was in poor health and wanted to retire, Hitler wanted him to return to Italy and start
5750-480: The Italian resistance movement and political enemies. On 15 August 1944, the GNR became part of the National Republican Army. The Ispettorato Militare del Lavoro ( ILM ), informally called the Organizzazione Paladino or Azione Graziani , was an organization of the Italian Social Republic during World War II composed of volunteer labourers "to collaborate with the German authorities in repairing roads and railways, and in general carry out other work of either
5875-437: The Kingdom of Italy surrendered and many Italian soldiers in the Aegean were tired of the war and had become opposed to Mussolini, Italian Fascist loyalists remained allied to Germany in the Greek campaign; German forces in Greece convinced 10,000 Italians in the Aegean to continue to support their war effort. In 1944, Mussolini urged Hitler to focus on destroying Britain rather than the Soviet Union, as Mussolini claimed that it
6000-447: The Piedmontese army towards the lake: at the news of its approach, Salò rebelled against the Austrians, several soldiers were taken prisoner and the Austrian insignia demolished. During the events also Riva del Garda and several towns on the Veronese side rose up. The Austrian army was forced to retreat to the Mincio line due to the advance of the Piedmontese troops and on 4 April the Austrians were driven out of Lonato and Desenzano, while
6125-407: The Piedmontese attempt to conquer Peschiera was unsuccessful. After the Piedmontese defeat of Custoza the pre-war status quo was restored. In 1859 the Second War of Independence began; on 18 June the Hunters of the Alps managed to enter Salò, from where Giuseppe Garibaldi wanted to leave to continue the advance towards Veneto crossing the lake with some boats, but new orders forced him to move
6250-456: The RSI held the NDH in contempt and refused to have diplomatic relations with the NDH or to recognize its territorial claims. After the Italian capitulation, the Italian Islands of the Aegean were occupied by the Germans (see Dodecanese campaign ). During the German occupation, the islands remained under the nominal sovereignty of the RSI but were de facto subject to the German military command. The Italian concession of Tientsin in China
6375-491: The RSI. The RSI's National Republican Navy ( Marina Nazionale Repubblicana or MNR) only reached a twentieth the size of the Italian Co-belligerent Navy that fought on the Allied side after the September 1943 armistice. The National Republican Navy consisted of nine motor torpedo boats (two large and seven small) and dozens of MTSM small motor torpedo boats and MTM explosive motorboats . The National Republican Navy also operated 15 CB -class midget submarines (ten in
SECTION 50
#17327729817776500-493: The Republic of China and the Empire of Manchuria . Finland and Vichy France , despite being in the Axis orbit, did not recognise the RSI. Even otherwise sympathetic States such as Spain or Portugal refused to establish formal diplomatic relations with the RSI. The Holy See did not recognise the RSI. During the existence of the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini, whose former government had banned trade unions and strikes, began to make increasingly populist appeals to
6625-472: The United States division's advance. However, the situation continued to deteriorate for the Axis forces on Gothic Line. By mid-April 1945, the final Allied offensive in Italy had led German defences to collapse. At the end of that month, the last remaining troops of RSI were bottled up along with two Wehrmacht divisions at Collecchio by 1st Brazilian Division being forced to surrender after some days of fighting. On 29 April, Graziani surrendered and
6750-479: The Veronese shore of the lake, which, together with another famous locality of the lake, Gardone Riviera , and others less known – such as Gàrdola, Gardoncino, Gardoni, Guàrdola and Le Garde – testifies to the Germanic presence in the area that dated from the 6th to the 8th century CE, in particular, the Lombard one . The name Garda is evolved from the Germanic word warda , meaning "place of guard", "place of observation" or "place of safety". The classic toponym of
6875-451: The area, when Riva del Garda was hit. The steamers of the lake were requisitioned by the Italian army and were re-equipped as warships. The following year some guns and artillery batteries were installed, but on 20 February 1916, Riva was hit again. The following day three Austrian planes bombed Desenzano, while on 27 February bombs fell in Nago and Torbole. In 1918 Riva was bombed again. Later Limone and, once again, Riva were targeted, but with
7000-535: The beginning of the German occupation of Italy in September 1943 until the surrender of Axis troops in Italy in May 1945 . The German occupation triggered widespread national resistance against it and the Italian Social Republic, leading to the Italian Civil War . The Italian Social Republic was the second and last incarnation of the Italian Fascist state, led by the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and his reformed anti-monarchist Republican Fascist Party . The newly founded state declared Rome its capital but
7125-426: The border between three powerful Lombard duchies: Brescia, Verona and Trento. The first documents that testify the presence of a Fines Gardenses , an entity with its own officials for the administration of justice, even if not autonomous with respect to the Count of Verona, date back to 825, while after the year 1000 county of Garda was established by the emperor Henry II . Starting from the 11th century, towns around
7250-400: The bulk of the 1st Italian volunteers Storm Brigade were sent to the Anzio beachhead , where they fought alongside their German allies, receiving favourable reports and taking heavy losses. In recognition of their performance, Heinrich Himmler declared the unit to be fully integrated into the Waffen SS . On 16 October 1943, the Rastenburg Protocol was signed with Nazi Germany and the RSI
7375-433: The capitulation of the city. In 1508 the League of Cambrai was formed against the Serenissima: Venice strengthened the castles of its mainland domains, including those of Salò and Padenghe, and sent several galleys to the lake, as well as having new ones built directly on Lake Garda. During the war the Venetians lost part of their domains which were however recovered in 1512. In 1516 emperor Maximilian I came to Italy and
7500-425: The chroniclers it caused great calamities, especially in the Baldo area; in 1457, during which a mountain above Salò lowered; in 1703, when it caused the fall of numerous houses and caused many victims; in 1810, an earthquake particularly hit Malcesine where it caused a clouding of the waters and the formation of a crack 200 metres (660 feet) long and 18 centimetres (7.1 inches) wide in the town square; in 1836, when
7625-425: The commander of the German occupying forces in Italy. The RSI had no constitution or organized economy, and its financing was dependent entirely on funding from Berlin. German forces themselves had little respect for Mussolini's failed fascism, and considered the regime merely as a tool for maintaining order, such as repressing the Italian partisans . This work was also carried out by the infamous Pietro Koch and
SECTION 60
#17327729817777750-439: The creation of the Republican Fascist Party and, three days later, the resumption of the war alongside Germany and Japan. The Duce immediately announced the formation of a new republican cabinet, although they actually came from a list chosen and appointed by Hitler himself. The Italian Social Republic was proclaimed on 23 September, with Mussolini as both chief of state and prime minister. The RSI claimed Rome as its capital, but
7875-542: The defeat of the Italian Army in Russia and the Allied invasion of Sicily . The next day, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini from office, ordered him arrested, and appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as new prime minister. By this time, the monarchy, a number of Fascist government members, and the general Italian population had grown tired of the futile war effort which had driven Italy into subordination to and subjugation by Nazi Germany . The failed war effort left Mussolini humiliated at home and abroad as
8000-412: The eastern coast, ATV (Verona Transport Company) provides at least five daily bus routes between Verona and Garda, with one route extending to Riva del Garda . Trentino Transporti provides daily bus routes between Riva del Garda and Rovereto or Trento . On the western coast, SAIA (Brescia Mobilità) provides regular bus services between Desenzano del Garda , Salò , Gargnano and Brescia . The lake
8125-404: The eastern one of approximately 1,040 square kilometres (400 sq mi). To the south of Lake Garda, between Brescia , Mantua and Verona , a large morainic amphitheatre develops: a succession of hilly circles with small flat areas interposed, in some cases marshy, originated thanks to the transport and storage action of the great Garda glacier. These morainic deposits were formed during
8250-536: The eastern shore of the lake. The Scaliger built numerous defensive constructions, in particular, they built the castles of Sirmione , Malcesine and Riva, reinforced the port structures of Lazise and Torri del Benaco , and built a great defense system called Serraglio , the only one of its kind in Italy. This fortified system, completed by Cangrande II in 1355, included isolated castles in Ponti sul Mincio and Monzambano , serious continuous and uninterrupted castles and towers connected by defensive walls starting from
8375-460: The efforts of Allied forces during their final offensive in Italy , managed to oust the Germans and the remaining RSI forces from Italy almost entirely. Mussolini was captured and killed by Italian partisans on 28 April as he and an entourage attempted to flee. The RSI Minister of Defense, Rodolfo Graziani , surrendered what was left of the Italian Social Republic on 1 May, one day after the German forces in Italy capitulated. On 24 July 1943, after
8500-463: The end of the war, Trentino also passed into Italian hands. In the period between the two wars the poet Gabriele D'Annunzio settled in Gardone Riviera , where the " Vittoriale degli Italiani ", his residence and now a museum, would later be built. Until 1943 the events of Second World War did not particularly affect the lake region, but following the birth of the Italian Social Republic (a German puppet state and Fascist Italian rump state ),
8625-417: The entire Garda region with extraordinary violence, causing the fall of chimneys and walls. Other earthquakes more recently hit Salò and its surroundings, in particular, the earthquake of 31 October 1901 caused widespread damage to buildings, some collapses and cracks in the ground, while another earthquake in 2004 caused damage to some buildings. The lake has also numerous small islands and five main ones,
8750-413: The establishment of the National Republican Guard ( Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana or GNR) and the Republican Police Corps ( Corpo di Polizia Repubblicana ) and the emergence of the Black Brigades ( brigate nere ). The GNR consisted of former OVRA , carabinieri, soldiers, Italian Africa Police , and others still loyal to the Fascist cause, while the Republican Police Corps was the successor agency of
8875-416: The exception of Tullio Cianetti, who received a life sentence , they were all executed on 11 January 1944 in the fort of San Procolo in Verona . The changing political and military situation re-opened questions regarding the status of Italian territories, particularly those with German-speaking majorities that were formerly under Austrian rule. Previously, Hitler had vigorously suppressed any campaigning for
9000-455: The former governor-general of Italian Libya , was the RSI's Minister of Defense and commander-in-chief of the combined German-Italian Army Group Liguria . Mussolini, as Duce and head of state of RSI assumed supreme command over all military forces of the RSI. In February 1945, the 92nd Infantry Division again came up against RSI units. This time it was Bersaglieri of the 1st Italian "Italia" Infantry Division. The Italians successfully halted
9125-482: The fortress of Valeggio sul Mincio and then continuing up to Nogarole Rocca . The Seraglio remained practically intact until the mid-19th century when it was partially dismantled. In 1387, following the defeat of Antonio della Scala , the whole Garda area was subjected to the Visconti ; as early as 1405 the eastern shore passed into the hands of the Republic of Venice , while the western shore remained afflicted by
9250-506: The glaciations Günz , Mindel , Riss and Würm : very limited morainic deposits are attributed to the two oldest, Günz and Mindel, while the outer morainic circles are attributed to the Riss glaciation and the inner ones to the Würm glaciation. The morphology of the hills is gentle and with delicate lines; from the highest points, it is possible to perceive the relationships that link the hills to
9375-403: The highest sense of the word; that is, it will be Fascist, thus returning to our origins". From the start, the Italian Social Republic was little more than a puppet state dependent entirely upon Germany and a rump state for the Fascists who are still loyal to Mussolini. Mussolini himself knew this; even as he stated in public that he was in full control of the RSI, he was well aware that he
9500-492: The hilly landscape. Traces of human presence around the lake have been found related to the Middle Paleolithic , in particular flint tools, but only above certain altitudes, as at lower altitudes, the actions of the glaciers have cancelled all the clues that could have proved the presence of man. There are some signs of encampments from Upper Paleolithic , in particular on the slopes of Monte Baldo and Stivo . In
9625-459: The hydrographic basin (2,290 square kilometres or 880 square miles) compared to the lake surface: at a length of 52 kilometres (32 mi) of the lake corresponds the 95 kilometres (59 mi) of the basin, while the respective widths are 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) and 42 kilometres (26 mi). The eastern watershed of the Benacense basin has a direction parallel to the axis of the lake, while
9750-407: The image that Fascism was a progressive movement. The economic policy of the RSI was given the name " Socialization ", and Mussolini had even considered the idea of calling his new republic the "Italian 'Socialist' Republic". In practice, little resulted from the declared socialization of the economy. Unions did not exert real control of their management and took no part in state planning (as they had
9875-638: The impression of official annexation of South Tyrol. However, in practice the territory of South Tyrol within the boundaries defined by Germany as Operationszone Alpenvorland that included Trento , Bolzano and Belluno were de facto incorporated into Germany's Reichsgau Tirol-Vorarlberg and administered by its Gauleiter Franz Hofer . The region identified by Germany as Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland that included Udine , Gorizia , Trieste , Pola and Fiume were de facto incorporated into Reichsgau Kärnten and administered by its Gauleiter Friedrich Rainer . On 10 September 1943,
10000-502: The lake began to develop a differentiated policy compared to that of the major centres of influence – Brescia, Verona and Trento – and this greater autonomy meant that many centres became free communities. These possessed comfortable economic conditions compared to the inland countries and a strong social awareness and sense of community. In the 13th century, however, the Signoria Scaligera was established and it soon subdued
10125-530: The lake returned to German hands again, allowing the Serenissima to recover the lost territories. In 1796 the territories of the Serenissima were involved in the Napoleonic wars : at the end of May, the French advanced to the lake and defeated the Austrians at Borghetto sul Mincio, conquering Peschiera. At the end of July, the French were defeated and had to retreat beyond Salò, which was then occupied by
10250-514: The lake, or Benācus lacus ( Benaco ), is almost certainly of Celtic origin, therefore prior to romanization, and should derive from bennacus , comparable with the Irish bennach , which means "horned". The term may derive from the many promontories of the lake. The northern part of the lake is located in a depression that insinuates itself inside the Alps , while the southern part occupies an area of
10375-500: The largest being Isola del Garda . Nearby to the south is San Biagio island , also known as the Isola dei Conigli ("island of the rabbits"). Both are offshore of San Felice del Benaco , on the lake's western side. The three other main islands are Isola dell'Olivo, Isola di Sogno, and Isola di Trimelone, all farther north near the eastern side. The particularly mild climate favours the growth of some hardy Mediterranean plants, including
10500-643: The massive Allied air offensive over Northern Italy. During 1944 and 1945, the ANR shot down 262 Allied aircraft for the loss in action of 158 of its own. Little of the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) joined the RSI. This was because the bulk of the Regia Marina was ordered to steam to Malta at the time of the September 1943 armistice, where it was out of the reach of the Germans and
10625-567: The mating season are silvery with very few black spots on the body and almost none on the head. During the mating season, some males develop a dark mottled body colouration. Garda lake trout reach a length of up to 50 centimetres (20 inches). They live primarily in depths of 100 to 200 metres (330 to 660 feet). They feed on zooplankton and bottom-dwelling crustaceans in summer. Males and females reach sexual maturity at two or three years. The mating takes place every one to two years. The spawning takes place in 50 to 300 metres (160 to 980 feet) depth in
10750-467: The modern conception of the term, however, developed from the end of the 19th century, even if it was still an élite tourism that concerned almost exclusively the north-western area of the lake. One of the first tourist resorts was Gardone Riviera , where the first small hotel was built. Expanded over time, it became one of the buildings that made up the luxurious Grand Hotel Gardone Riviera. In its vicinity other small hotels and villas slowly arose and, after
10875-768: The mountains as well as the circular amphitheatre shape of the hills, which seem to embrace the southern part of the lake. The main tributary of Lake Garda is the Sarca River , others include the Ponale River (fed by Lago di Ledro ), the Varone/Magnone River [ de ] (via the Cascate del Varone ) and various streams from both mountainsides, while the only outlet is the Mincio River (79 metres or 259 feet, at Peschiera). The subdivision
11000-583: The negotiations, acted immediately by ordering German troops to seize control of Northern and Central Italy. The Germans quickly occupied Italy, disarmed the Italian troops and took over all of the Italian Army's materials and equipment , meeting only limited resistance. The Germans also dissolved the Italian occupation zone in southeastern France and forced Italian troops stationed there to leave. The Italian armed forces were not given clear orders to resist
11125-521: The organization of the territory and the inhabited centres. Furthermore, in the second half of the 20th century, a real entertainment industry was formed along Lake Garda as a series of parks were built. The most important is Gardaland , the biggest Italian theme park which hosts numerous tourist attractions. Lake Garda is also a popular destination for sport tourism . Riva, Torbole and Campione are famous for winds that attract people who practice sail , windsurf and kiteboard . The Centomiglia Regatta
11250-528: The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio had the Vittoriale degli Italiani built here, the fame of the place grew further. On the Veronese shore, tourism arrived much later, around the 1930s, when the current Strada Gardesana Orientale was built along the shores of the lake. With the arrival of tourists, "lakeside promenades" were planned. Since the 1950s tourism has undergone a sort of transformation: tourism with
11375-411: The power to do on paper after the socialization). The Italian industrial sector was excluded from the new reforms by the Germans and Italian industrialists were opposed to the changes in any case. The Italian labour force (large parts of which had remained leftist despite fascist rule) regarded socialization as a sham and responded with a massive strike on 1 March 1944. In Greece, while the government of
11500-611: The predictably imminent defection of Italy. While Badoglio continued to swear loyalty to Germany and the Axis powers, Italian government emissaries prepared to sign an armistice at Cassibile in Allied-occupied Sicily , which was finalized on 3 September. On 8 September, Badoglio announced Italy's armistice with the Allies (although termed an "armistice", its terms made it akin to an unconditional surrender ). German Führer Adolf Hitler and his staff, long aware of
11625-698: The prominent leaders of the post-war Italian far-right (parliamentary and extraparliamentary) were associated with the experience of the RSI. Among them were Filippo Anfuso , Pino Romualdi , Rodolfo Graziani , Junio Valerio Borghese , Licio Gelli , and Giorgio Almirante . Most of the 8,000 Italian Jews who died in the Holocaust in Italy were killed during the 20 months of the Salò regime. Lake Garda Lake Garda ( Italian : Lago di Garda , Italian: [ˈlaːɡo di ˈɡarda] , or (Lago) Benaco , Italian: [beˈnaːko] ; Eastern Lombard : Lach de Garda ; Venetian : Ƚago de Garda )
11750-479: The provinces of Brescia (to the south-west), Verona (south-east) and Trentino (north). In Roman times the lake was known as Benacus and by some it was revered as god Benacus, the personification of the lake, sometimes associated with the cult of Neptune . Today it is better known as Lake Garda, a toponym of Germanic origin attested since the Middle Ages and deriving from that of the homonymous town on
11875-553: The public security complex formed by the Directorate of Public Security and the Public Security Agents Corps. The Black Brigade was formed by the new fascist party members both young and old. Both units fought alongside Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS) counterparts against the Italian resistance movement in an extensive anti- partisan war. The Black Brigades committed many atrocities in their fight against
12000-473: The return of lands such as South Tyrol in order to maintain good relations with his Italian ally. In the aftermath of Italy's abandonment of the Axis on 8 September 1943, Germany seized and de facto incorporated some Italian territories. However, Hitler refused to officially annex South Tyrol in spite of urging by local German officials and instead supported having the RSI hold official sovereignty over these territories and forbade all measures that would give
12125-593: The seat of the German embassy and Gardone of the Japanese one, while the Ministry of the Interior and the seat of the Republican Fascist Party (PFR) found accommodation in Maderno. The upper part of the lake was also occupied militarily by the Wehrmacht . In April 1945 the lake was freed by the Allies and later became part of the Republic of Italy . The award winning documentary film The Lost Mountaineers looks at
12250-478: The southern and eastern shores, preferred to other areas due to their strategic importance: from here it was possible to control both the waterways of Garda and Mincio, and the Adige valley. During the Lombard hegemony, there was a first administrative reorganization, as well as the definitive Christianization of the area, begun in the previous centuries by Vigilius of Trent and Zeno of Verona . The lake remained on
12375-404: The spring wildflowers such as primroses , iris , violets and red lilies are born, while in summer some bloom varieties of wild orchids . Thanks to the presence of protected areas, hares and small wild mammals, water birds and birds of prey survive, while ponds and ditches are populated by pike , carp and eels . The herds of cattle, horses and other domestic animals give a bucolic aspect to
12500-474: The struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines . In 1426 the Visconti lost Brescia and the western shore of the lake, which thus passed into the hands of Venice: gathered under the flag of the Republic of Venice, the 34 Benacense municipalities obtained ample autonomy. The war returned in 1438, due to the struggle between Venice and Milan : an exceptional event, remembered with the name of Galeas per montes ,
12625-614: The tragic events that happened in the last days of the war in northern Lake Garda. According to the Greco-Roman mythology , the River Mincius was the child of the Lake Benacus. In ancient German Sagas , Garda was home to Ortnit . Around Lake Garda there are 26 comuni , the most populated being Desenzano del Garda (29,179 inhabitants), followed by Arco (17,857) and Riva del Garda (17,518). Garda's economy
12750-509: The tremors caused some landslides in Mount Tomè, in the northernmost part of Monte Baldo , which in turn caused a strong eruption of water. In 1866 a rather long period of seismic agitation began in the Baldo area, with earthquakes of varying intensity, tremors, shaking and other phenomena of lesser importance, which saw as the most important event the earthquake of 5 January 1892, which shook
12875-684: The troops in the Brescia valleys. However, the Italian troops managed to sink an Austrian steamship before leaving Salò. Shortly after the battle of Solferino and San Martino was won by the Franco-Savoyards and Peschiera was besieged. With the armistice of Villafranca the war was put to an end: Garda returned to be a land border, on this occasion between Italians and Austrians. During the Third War of Independence Garibaldi returned to Salò again and from there he invaded Trentino . Meanwhile,
13000-413: The upper Pianura Padana . The shape is typical of a moraine valley, probably having been formed under the action of a Paleolithic glacier. Although traces of the glacier's actions are evident today, in more recent years it has been hypothesised that the glacier occupied a previously existing depression, created by stream erosion 5 to 6 million years ago. A characteristic of Garda is the limited size of
13125-547: The very serious losses they suffered during the battle. The Roman presence is amply testified also by settlements, villas (in particular the notes Grottoes of Catullus ), by the remains of centuriation still visible today, by the remains of sanctuaries, tombstones and epigraphic testimonies. In the Middle Ages Lake Garda was described by Dante in his Divine Comedy : Suso in Italia bella giace un laco,
13250-480: The vicinity of underwater springs. The maximum age is five years. Areas around Lake Garda, inhabited since prehistoric times, are an environment of great naturalistic value, with vegetation typical of the Mediterranean climate such as olive trees , vines , lemon trees , agave and other plants, which thrive thanks to the microclimate created by the Garda basin, which makes winter particularly mild. During
13375-408: The war. With the removal of the monarchy, Mussolini claimed the full ideology of Fascism could be pursued; and to gain popular support he reversed over twenty years of Fascist policy of backing private property and relative economic independence by ordering the nationalization of all companies with over 100 employees. Mussolini even reached out to ex-communist Nicola Bombacci to help him in spreading
13500-452: The war. The RSI became so desperate for soldiers that it granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and imposed a sentence of death on anyone who opposed being conscripted. Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the notorious Decima Flottiglia MAS of Prince Junio Valerio Borghese . Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could. During
13625-538: The western and northern banks of the Benaco) and Verona (which instead included the eastern shore). During the 1st century AD many roads were built, such as the via Gallica , which connected Verona to Milan passing through Peschiera (the ancient Arilica ), and the via Claudia Augusta , which connected the plain with the Resia pass and therefore the northernmost territories, as well as some minor roads that connected
13750-427: The western one has a more sinuous course. Within the basin, the major peaks are Presanella (3,556 metres or 11,667 feet) and Adamello (3,554 metres or 11,660 feet). Morphologically, the Garda hydrographic basin can be divided into four areas: the plain of about 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi), the lake surface of about 370 square kilometres (140 sq mi), the western portion of about 500 km² and
13875-571: The winter of 1944–1945, armed Italians were on both sides of the Gothic Line . On the Allied side were four Italian groups of volunteers from the old Italian army. These Italian volunteers were equipped and trained by the British. On the Axis side were four RSI divisions. Three of the RSI divisions, the 2nd Grenadier Division "Littorio" , the 3rd Italian "San Marco" Marine Division and the 4th Italian Monterosa Alpini Division were allocated to
14000-438: The working class. He claimed to regret many of the decisions made earlier in supporting the interests of big business and promised a new beginning if the Italian people would be willing to grant him a second chance. Mussolini claimed that he had never totally abandoned his left-wing influences, insisting that he had attempted to nationalize property in 1939–1940 but had been forced to delay such action for tactical reasons related to
14125-459: Was Il Lavoro Fascista , formerly the publication of Fascist trade unions; Mussolini was largely indifferent toward the new paper and generally wrote on the Corriere della Sera instead. The Duce explicitly refused to revive his former newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia , not willing to let it become a mouthpiece of the German occupation. On 14 February 1945, Mussolini authorized the formation of
14250-751: Was Britain that had turned the conflict into a world war and that the British Empire must be destroyed in order for peace to come in Europe. Mussolini wanted to conduct a small offensive along the Gothic Line against the Allies with his new RSI Divisions; in December 1944, the Alpine Division "Monte Rosa" with some German battalions fought the Battle of Garfagnana with some success. As the situation became desperate, with Allied forces in control of most of Italy and from February 1945 resumed pushing
14375-579: Was a meeting point between the populations of Reti and Veneti , whose presence is testified in particular by the necropolis of Garda, as well as that of the Etruscans who came to trade in these areas. Also plausible is the presence of the Cenomani , who would have settled in the area between Brescia and the lake around the 6th century BC, leaving their traces mostly in the Lombard toponymy. The integration between Romans and Cenomani , who controlled
14500-483: Was allowed to raise division-sized military formations. This protocol allowed Marshal Rodolfo Graziani to raise four RSI divisions totalling 52,000 men. In July 1944, the first of these divisions completed training and was sent to the front. Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI as most of the Italian Army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many military-aged Italians had been conscripted into forced labour in Germany and few wanted to participate in
14625-568: Was ceded by the RSI to the Japanese puppet Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China . The RSI was recognized as the legitimate government of Italy by Germany , Imperial Japan , Bulgaria , Romania , Hungary and Thailand ; it was also recognised by puppet and client States of the Axis, such as the Independent State of Croatia , the Slovak Republic , the Reorganised National Government of
14750-564: Was in captivity in an attempt to foil any attempts at rescue. Despite this, the Germans eventually pinpointed Mussolini at the Hotel Campo Imperatore at Gran Sasso . On 12 September, Mussolini was freed by the Germans in Operation Eiche (directed by SS - Obersturmbannführer Otto Skorzeny ) in the mountains of Abruzzo . After being freed, Mussolini was flown to Bavaria . Gathering what support he still had among
14875-515: Was little more than the Gauleiter of Lombardy . The SS kept Mussolini under what amounted to house arrest; it monitored his communications and controlled his travel. Mussolini later said that he would have preferred being sent to a concentration camp to the manner that the SS treated him. Real power rested with German General Plenipotentiary Rudolf Rahn and SS- Obergruppenführer Karl Wolff ,
15000-627: Was politically insignificant and its membership is unknown. Mussolini himself privately told German ambassador Rudolf Rahn that he only authorised the formation of the RNRS in an attempt to sway some working-class voters away from the National Liberation Committee and that it was never meant to create any real political pluralism. While the RSI supported Nazi Germany, it allowed the Italian Fascist movement to build
15125-547: Was present at Caserta when a representative of German General Heinrich von Vietinghoff -Scheel signed the unconditional instrument of surrender for all Axis forces in Italy, but since the Allies had never recognised the RSI Graziani's signature was not required at Caserta. The surrender was to take effect on 2 May; Graziani ordered all RSI forces under his command to lay down their arms on 1 May. The National Republican Air Force ( Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana or ANR)
15250-609: Was the air force of Italian Social Republic and also the air unit of National Republican Army. It was organized into three fighter groups , one torpedo bomber group, one bomber group, and other transport and minor units. The ANR worked closely with the German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) in Northern Italy. In 1944, after the withdrawal of all German fighter units for home air defense over Germany, ANR fighter groups were left alone and heavily outnumbered to face
15375-503: Was the brigadier general Piera Gatteschi Fondelli . The Government of the Italian Social Republic held office from 23 September 1943 until 25 April 1945, a total of 1 year, 274 days. Its head was Benito Mussolini. The Government wrote a constitution for the Italian Social Republic, but it was never discussed or approved. On 13 October 1943, the Government announced that a Constituent Assembly would be called to write
15500-463: Was the passage of a fleet composed of six galleys and twenty-five ships on the slopes of Monte Baldo, pulled by 2,000 oxen. This fleet sailed on Adige and almost reached Rovereto , from where it was transported to Lake Garda by land through the valley of Lake Loppio . The fleet was then used to counter the Milanese one and had its greatest success in a battle at Riva del Garda, which was followed by
15625-577: Was tried by an Italian tribunal and was convicted of six charges only under Italian law at the High Court since the laws of war at the time had no provisions dealing with non-international armed conflict (NIAC). He was executed at Rome's Forte Bravetta aged 26. Italian Social Republic The Italian Social Republic ( Italian : Repubblica Sociale Italiana , Italian: [reˈpubblika soˈtʃaːle itaˈljaːna] ; RSI ; German : Italienische Sozialrepublik ), known prior to December 1943 as
#776223