120-593: The Bansho Shirabesho ( 蕃書調所 ) , or "Institute for the Study of Barbarian Books," was the Japanese institute charged with the translation and study of foreign books and publications in the late Edo Period . The institute was founded in 1856 that catered to the samurai youth. It emerged out of the previous translation bureau called Yogakusho , which also previously replaced the Banshowagegoyo . The launch of
240-585: A Russian sailor was cut to pieces in the streets of Yokohama. In early 1860, two Dutch captains were slaughtered, also in Yokohama. Chinese and native servants of foreigners were also killed. Several missions were sent abroad by the Bakufu, in order to revise the commercial treaties. However, these efforts remained largely unsuccessful. A Japanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board
360-684: A bad thing for Japan. In fact, one could even say it was appealing. However, among the senior officials of the Shogunate, there was a trauma from the Nagasaki Harbour Incident . They probably adopted a hardline stance as a result of assuming that Americans were no different from the British." The years 1854–1855 saw a dramatic series of earthquakes, known as the Ansei great earthquakes , with 120 major and minor tremors recorded over
480-664: A base for supply or at least a place where shipwrecks could receive assistance. The incident in Nagasaki Harbour where the Royal Navy frigate HMS Phaeton demanded supplies from the harbour chief in 1808 shocked the Tokugawa government, who ordered the ports to be even more tightly guarded. In 1825, the Edict to expel foreigners at all cost ( 異国船無二念打払令 , Ikokusen Muninen Uchiharairei , "Don't think twice" policy)
600-412: A ceasefire due to the death of the previous shōgun , but the prestige of the shogunate was nevertheless seriously affected. This reversal encouraged the Bakufu to take drastic steps towards modernization. During the last years of the bakufu , or bakumatsu , the bakufu took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it
720-463: A core elite force. The shōgun also relied on troops supplied by allied domains, which were not necessarily as advanced in terms of military equipment and methods, composing an army that had both modern and outdated elements. Numerous types of more or less modern smoothbore muskets and rifles were imported, from countries as varied as France , Germany , the Netherlands , Britain , and
840-473: A few Gatling guns. After an inconclusive start, an Imperial banner was presented to the defending troops on the second day, and a relative of the Emperor, Ninnajinomiya Yoshiaki , was named nominal commander in chief , making the forces officially an imperial army ( 官軍 , kangun ) . Moreover, convinced by courtiers, several local daimyōs , up to this point faithful to the shōgun , started to defect to
960-456: A head on January 3, 1868, when these elements seized the imperial palace in Kyoto, and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly representing all the domains was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the imperial court and tended to support a continued collaboration with
1080-532: A less than two-year period including the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Tōkai earthquake on 23 December 1854, the 8.4 magnitude 1854 Nankai earthquake occurring the following day, and the 6.9 magnitude 1855 Edo earthquake , which struck what is today modern Tokyo, on 11 November 1855. Shimoda on the Izu Peninsula was struck by the Tōkai earthquake and a subsequent tsunami, and because the port had just been designated as
1200-783: A more extensive attempt at modernisation with it being introduced in 1862 by graduates of 2 Samurai academies. The attempt called for the raising of a standing army from the Shogun's personal lands (Tenryo) and the Daimyo under their feudal obligations to provide troops to the Shogun. The army known as the Sampeitai or alternatively the Shinei jobigun was supposed to number 13,625 men with 8,300 infantry (2,000 with rifles) 1,068 cavalry (900 with rifles) 4,890 artillerymen with 48 8 lb field guns and 52 16 lb siege guns and 1,406 officers. The force
1320-556: A much longer range than the imported smoothbore muskets, although, being also muzzle-loading, they were similarly limited to two shots per minute. Improved breech-loading mechanisms, such as the Snider , developing a rate of about ten shots a minute, are known to have been used by Chōshū troops against the shogunate's Shōgitai regiment at the Battle of Ueno in July 1868. In the second half of
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#17327832710291440-463: A nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunate government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers. Satow speculated that Yoshinobu had agreed to an assembly of daimyōs on the hope that such a body would restore him, a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable. Events came to
1560-401: A secret alliance with Satsuma. In the summer of 1866, the shogunate was defeated by Chōshū, leading to a considerable loss of authority. In late 1866, however, first shōgun Tokugawa Iemochi and then Emperor Kōmei died, succeeded by Tokugawa Yoshinobu and Emperor Meiji respectively. These events, in the words of historian Marius Jansen , "made a truce inevitable". On November 9, 1867,
1680-502: A secret order was created by Satsuma and Chōshū in the name of Emperor Meiji commanding the "slaughtering of the traitorous subject Yoshinobu". Just prior to this, however—and following a proposal from the daimyō of the Tosa Domain —Yoshinobu resigned his post and authority to the emperor, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" imperial orders. This ended the Tokugawa shogunate. While Yoshinobu's resignation had created
1800-463: A target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto Takeaki . The French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki . By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy of
1920-485: A total of 36 infantry battalions amounting to 14,400 men which formed the core of the Pro-Imperial Army when war broke out. In April 1868 Emperor Meiji himself called for the dispatch of 60 men per 10,000 koku (150 kg of rice, the amount needed for a man for one year) produced in his domain, of the 60 man drafts one-sixth were to be sent to Kyoto to form an Imperial army and the remaining 50 to garrison
2040-530: A total of 50,000 troops. Apart from those core domains, most of the northern domains were part of the alliance. In May 1868, the daimyō of Nagaoka inflicted high losses on the Imperial troops in the Battle of Hokuetsu , but his castle ultimately fell on May 19. Imperial troops continued to progress north, defeating the Shinsengumi at the Battle of Bonari Pass , which opened the way for their attack on
2160-658: Is associated with that particular year in the sexagenary cycle. The war started in the fourth year of the Keiō era , which also became the first year of the Meiji era in October of that year, and ended in the second year of the Meiji era. For the two centuries prior to 1854, Japan had a strict policy of isolationism , restricting all interactions with foreign powers, with the notable exceptions of Korea via Tsushima , Qing China via
2280-505: The bakufu ' ) were the final years of the Edo period when the Tokugawa shogunate ended . Between 1853 and 1867, under foreign diplomatic and military pressure, Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and changed from a feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the modern empire of the Meiji government . The major ideological-political divide during this period
2400-429: The tozama daimyō (or outside lords), and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry . The first related to those lords whose predecessors had fought against Tokugawa forces at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, after which they had been permanently excluded from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi , or "revere
2520-759: The Kanrin Maru and the USS Powhattan . A First Japanese Embassy to Europe was sent in 1862. A Second Japanese Embassy to Europe would be sent in December 1863, with the mission to obtain European support to reinstate Japan's former closure to foreign trade, and especially stop foreign access to the harbor of Yokohama . The Embassy ended in total failure as European powers did not see any advantages in yielding to its demands. Belligerent opposition to Western influence further erupted into open conflict when
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#17327832710292640-660: The Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, the Kankō Maru , which was used for training, and opened the Nagasaki Naval Training Center with Dutch instructors, while a Western-style military school
2760-521: The Eejanaika . From 1859, the ports of Nagasaki , Hakodate and Yokohama became open to foreign traders as a consequence of the Treaties. Foreigners arrived in Yokohama and Kanagawa in great numbers, giving rise to trouble with the samurai. Violence increased against the foreigners and those who dealt with them. Murders of foreigners and collaborating Japanese soon followed. On 26 August 1859,
2880-500: The Emperor Kōmei , breaking with centuries of imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state and issued, on March 11 and April 11, 1863, his " Order to expel barbarians " ( 攘夷実行の勅命 , jōi jikkō no chokumei ) . The Mōri clan of Chōshū , under Lord Mōri Takachika , followed on the order, and began to take actions to expel all foreigners from the date fixed as a deadline (May 10, Lunar calendar). Openly defying
3000-586: The Japanese Revolution or Japanese Civil War , was a civil war in Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate and a coalition seeking to seize political power in the name of the Imperial Court . The war stemmed from dissatisfaction among many nobles and young samurai with the shogunate's handling of foreigners following the opening of Japan during
3120-570: The Namamugi incident and the murder of the English trader Richardson. The Royal Navy bombarded Kagoshima and sunk several ships. Satsuma however later negotiated and paid 25,000 pounds, but did not remit Richardson's killers, and in exchange obtained an agreement by Great Britain to supply steam warships to Satsuma. The conflict actually became the starting point of a close relationship between Satsuma and Great Britain, which became major allies in
3240-633: The Ryukyu Islands , and the Dutch through the trading post of Dejima . In 1854, the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's expedition opened Japan to global commerce through the implied threat of force, thus initiating rapid development of foreign trade and Westernization . In large part due to the humiliating terms of the unequal treaties , as agreements like those negotiated by Perry are called,
3360-686: The Sakai incident on March 8, 1868. Fifteen days later, Sir Harry Parkes , the British ambassador, was attacked by a group of samurai in a street of Kyoto. Beginning in February, with the help of the French ambassador Léon Roches , a plan was formulated to stop the Imperial Court's advance at Odawara , the last strategic entry point to Edo, but Yoshinobu decided against the plan. Shocked, Léon Roches resigned from his position. In early March, under
3480-414: The Tokugawa shogunate soon faced internal dissent, which coalesced into a radical movement, the sonnō jōi (meaning "revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians"). Emperor Kōmei agreed with such sentiments and, breaking with centuries of Imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state: as opportunities arose, he vehemently protested against the treaties and attempted to interfere in
3600-505: The Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed in 1858 and put into application from mid-1859. During the negotiations, Harris had convinced the Japanese negotiators to sign the treaty on the basis it was the best possible terms a Western power would offer. The most important points of the Treaty were: Japan was also forced to apply any further conditions granted to other foreign nations in
3720-527: The Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) maintained the prohibition on trade but opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American whaling ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda , a seaport on the Izu Peninsula , southwest of Edo. In February 1855, the Russians followed suit with
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3840-407: The Treaty of Shimoda . The resulting damage to the shogunate was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the shogunate. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai daimyō , had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyō , further undermining the already weakened bakufu . In
3960-483: The United Kingdom and France , were deeply involved in the country's politics, the installation of Imperial power added more turbulence to the conflict. Over time, the war was romanticized as a "bloodless revolution", as the number of casualties was small relative to the size of Japan's population. However, conflicts soon emerged between the western samurai and the modernists in the Imperial faction, which led to
4080-496: The United States , and coexisted with traditional types such as the tanegashima matchlock . Most shogunate troops used smoothbore muskets, about 200,000 of which had been imported or domestically produced over the years since around 1600. The first modern firearms were initially imported about 1840 from the Netherlands by the pro-Western reformist Takashima Shūhan . The daimyō of Nagaoka Domain , however, an ally of
4200-717: The Wyoming suffered extensive damage with fourteen crew dead or wounded. On the heels of McDougal's engagement, two weeks later a French landing force of two warships, the Tancrède and the Dupleix , and 250 men under Captain Benjamin Jaurès swept into Shimonoseki and destroyed a small town, together with at least one artillery emplacement. In August 1863, the Bombardment of Kagoshima took place, in retaliation for
4320-508: The barbarians with their own methods". After 1839, however, traditionalists tended to prevail. Students of Western sciences were accused of treason ( Bansha no goku ), put under house arrest ( Takashima Shūhan ), forced to commit ritual suicide ( Watanabe Kazan , Takano Chōei ), or even assassinated as in the case of Sakuma Shōzan . When Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay (Tokyo Bay) in July 1853,
4440-684: The shōgun ' s Army Minister, negotiated the surrender. Some groups continued to resist after this surrender but were defeated in the Battle of Ueno on July 4, 1868. Meanwhile, the leader of the shōgun ' s navy, Enomoto Takeaki , refused to surrender all his ships. He remitted just four ships, among them the Fujiyama , but he then escaped north with the remnants of the shōgun ' s navy (eight steam warships: Kaiten , Banryū , Chiyodagata , Chōgei , Kaiyō Maru , Kanrin Maru , Mikaho and Shinsoku ), and 2,000 personnel, in
4560-908: The shōgun already possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru , which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War , under the command of Admiral Enomoto . A French Military Mission to Japan was established to help modernize the armies of the Bakufu . Japan sent a delegation to and participated in the 1867 World Fair in Paris. Boshin War Imperial victory [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Meiji [REDACTED] Prince Komatsu The Boshin War ( 戊辰 戦争 , Boshin Sensō ) , sometimes known as
4680-487: The shōgun , possessed two Gatling guns and several thousand modern rifles. The shogunate is known to have placed an order for 30,000 modern Dreyse needle guns in 1866. Napoleon III provided Yoshinobu with 2,000 state-of-the-art Chassepot rifles, which he used to equip his personal guard. Antiquated tanegashima matchlocks are also known to have been used by the shogunate, however. Imperial troops mainly used Minié rifles, which were much more accurate, lethal, and had
4800-515: The 12 year old Tokugawa Iemochi as shōgun whom it was perceived Tairō Ii Naosuke would have influence over, ultimately placing Nariaki and Yoshinobu under house arrest, and executing Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859, a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu) known as the Ansei Purge . Tairō Ii Naosuke , who had signed
4920-493: The Daimyo's domain. On January 27, 1868, shogunate forces attacked the forces of Chōshū and Satsuma, clashing near Toba and Fushimi , at the southern entrance to Kyoto in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi . Some parts of the 15,000-strong shogunate forces had been trained by French military advisers. Among their numbers during this battle were the noted Shinsengumi . The forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were outnumbered 3:1 but fully modernized with Armstrong howitzers, Minié rifles and
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5040-553: The Emperor's court was, but were repelled by shogunate forces under the future shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu . The shogunate further ordered a punitive expedition against Chōshū, the First Chōshū expedition , and obtained Chōshū's submission without actual fighting. At this point the initial resistance among the leadership in Chōshū and the Imperial Court subsided, but over the next year the Tokugawa proved unable to reassert full control over
5160-491: The Emperor, expel the barbarians". The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba–Fushimi when pro-shogunate forces were defeated. Frictions with foreign shipping led Japan to take defensive actions from the beginning of the 19th century. Western ships were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling activities and the trade with China . They were hoping for Japan to become
5280-532: The French. Despite the bombardment of Kagoshima, the Satsuma Domain had become closer to the British and was pursuing the modernization of its army and navy with their support. The Scottish merchant Thomas Blake Glover sold quantities of warships and guns to the southern domains. American and British military experts, usually former officers, may have been directly involved in this military effort. The British ambassador, Harry Smith Parkes , supported
5400-764: The Harris Treaty and tried to eliminate opposition to Westernization with the Ansei Purge , was himself murdered in March 1860 in the Sakuradamon incident . A servant of the French Minister was attacked at the end of 1860. On 14 January 1861, Henry Heusken , Secretary to the American mission, was attacked and murdered. On 5 July 1861, a group of samurai attacked the British Legation, resulting in two deaths. During this period, about one foreigner
5520-590: The Netherlands and the United States, planned an armed reaction against Japanese acts of violence against the citizens with the Bombardment of Shimonoseki. The Allied intervention occurred in September 1864, combining the naval forces of the four nations, against the powerful daimyō Mōri Takachika of the Chōshū Domain based in Shimonoseki , Japan. This conflict proved inopportune for America, which in 1864,
5640-466: The Sampeitai adding at least 1,500 men to the army. The Shogunate, aiming to modernise its forces, hired 17 French officers in 1867. These 17 officers trained 900 men who formed the elite Denshutai . The French officers brought with them 3,000 Chassepot rifles and 12 artillery pieces. Three separate military schools were constructed for the infantry, artillery and cavalry with limited engineer instruction, they also introduced carbine and lance cavalry to
5760-692: The Satsuma Domain. The Shōhei Maru was built from 1853 to 1854 at Sakurajima in what is now Kagoshima Prefecture in accordance with a Dutch blueprint. Furthermore, fortifications were established at Odaiba in Tokyo Bay in order to protect Edo from an American incursion. Industrial developments also commenced soon afterwards in order to build modern cannons. A reverbatory furnace was established by Egawa Hidetatsu in Nirayama to cast cannons. The American fleet returned in 1854. The chairman of
5880-720: The Satsuma navy in Awa Bay near Osaka. This was Japan's second engagement between two modern navies. The battle, although small in scale, ended with a victory for the shogunate. On the diplomatic front, the ministers of foreign nations, gathered in the open harbour of Hyōgo (present day Kobe ) in early February, issued a declaration according to which the shogunate was still considered the only rightful government in Japan, giving hope to Tokugawa Yoshinobu that foreign nations (especially France) might consider an intervention in his favour. A few days later however an Imperial delegation visited
6000-514: The Tokugawa (under the concept of "just government" ( 公議政体 , kōgiseitai ) ), Saigō Takamori threatened the assembly into abolishing the title " shōgun " and ordering the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands. Although he initially agreed to these demands, on January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the Restoration proclamation and called for its repeal. On January 24, he decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, which
6120-652: The Tokugawa government. A national debate was already taking place about how to better avoid foreign incursions. Some such as Egawa claimed that it was necessary to use the foreigners' techniques to repel them. Others, such as Torii Yōzō [ jp ] argued that only traditional Japanese methods should be employed and reinforced. Egawa argued that just as Confucianism and Buddhism had been introduced from abroad, it made sense to introduce useful Western techniques. A theoretical synthesis of "Western knowledge" and "Eastern morality" would later be accomplished by Sakuma Shōzan and Yokoi Shōnan , in view of "controlling
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#17327832710296240-451: The US refused to release the ship, but once neutrality was lifted, the imperial faction obtained the vessel and employed it in engagements in Hakodate under the name Kōtetsu ("Ironclad"). Following a coup d'état within Chōshū which returned to power the extremist factions opposed to the shogunate, the shogunate announced its intention to lead a Second Chōshū expedition to punish the renegade domain. This, in turn, prompted Chōshū to form
6360-450: The United Kingdom ( Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce ) on August 26, and France ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan ) on October 9). Trading houses were quickly set up in the open ports. The opening of Japan to uncontrolled foreign trade brought massive economic instability. While some prospered, many others went bankrupt. Unemployment rose, as well as inflation . Coincidentally, major famines also increased
6480-452: The Western powers. Due to the persistence of Saigō Takamori , a prominent leader of the Imperial faction, the Tokugawa loyalists were shown clemency , and many former shogunate leaders and samurai were later given positions of responsibility under the new government. When the Boshin War began, Japan was already modernizing, following the same course of advancement as that of the industrialized Western nations. Since Western nations, especially
6600-455: The anti-shogunate forces in a drive to establish a legitimate, unified Imperial rule in Japan , and to counter French influence with the shogunate. During that period, southern Japanese leaders such as Saigō Takamori of Satsuma, or Itō Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru of Chōshū cultivated personal connections with British diplomats, notably Ernest Mason Satow . Satsuma domain received British assistance for their naval modernisation, and they became
6720-420: The betrayal by Yodo and Tsu, shogunate forces retreated, resulting in an Imperial victory, although it is often considered the shogunate forces should have won the encounter. Osaka Castle was soon invested on March 1 (February 8 in the Tenpō calendar ), putting an end to the battle. The day after the battle of Toba–Fushimi commenced, the naval Battle of Awa took place between the shogunate and elements of
6840-441: The bloodier Satsuma Rebellion nine years later. Boshin ( 戊辰 ) is the designation for the fifth year of a sexagenary cycle in traditional East Asian calendars. Although the war lasted for over a year, Boshin refers to the year that the war started in. The characters 戊辰 can also be read as tsuchinoe-tatsu in Japanese , literally "Elder Brother of Earth-Dragon". In Chinese , it translates as " Yang Earth Dragon", which
6960-547: The castle of Aizuwakamatsu in the Battle of Aizu in October 1868, thus making the position in Sendai untenable. Enomoto's fleet reached Sendai harbour on August 26. Although the Northern Coalition was numerous, it was poorly equipped, and relied on traditional fighting methods. Modern armament was scarce, and last-minute efforts were made to build cannons made of wood and reinforced with roping, firing stone projectiles. Such cannons, installed on defensive structures, could only fire four or five projectiles before bursting. On
7080-510: The conflict, in the northeast theater, Tosa troops are known to have used American-made Spencer repeating rifles . American-made handguns were also popular, such as the 1863 Smith & Wesson Army No 2 , which was imported to Japan by Glover and used by Satsuma forces. For artillery, wooden cannons , only able to fire 3 or 4 shots before bursting, coexisted with state-of-the-art Armstrong guns using explosive shells . Armstrong guns were efficiently used by Satsuma and Saga troops throughout
7200-431: The country as most daimyōs began to ignore orders and questions from the Tokugawa seat of power in Edo . The Shogun had sought French assistance for training and weaponry since 1865. Léon Roches, French consul to Japan, supported the Shogunal military reform efforts to promote French influence, hoping to make Japan into a dependent client state. This caused the British to send their own military mission to compete with
7320-443: The crises by debasing the gold content of its coins by two thirds, so as to match foreign gold-silver exchange ratios. Foreigners also brought cholera to Japan, leading to hundreds of thousands of deaths. Hotta lost the support of key Daimyōs, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu , rejected Hotta's request which resulted in
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#17327832710297440-463: The effect that the ports are to be closed and the foreigners driven out, because the people of the country do not desire intercourse with foreign countries. Edward Neale , the head of the British Legation, responded on very strong terms, equating the move with a declaration of war: It is, in fact, a declaration of war by Japan itself against the whole of the Treaty Powers, and the consequences of which, if not at once arrested, it will have to expiate by
7560-432: The emperor. Yoshinobu had hoped that by doing this the House of Tokugawa could be preserved and participate in the future government. However, military movements by imperial forces, partisan violence in Edo , and an imperial decree promoted by Satsuma and Chōshū abolishing the House of Tokugawa led Yoshinobu to launch a military campaign to seize the emperor's court in Kyoto . The military tide rapidly turned in favour of
7680-434: The end of the war. The Satsuma domain in 1840 contained 25,000 samurai and being more open to the world at large underwent a more rapid process of modernisation than the Shogunate. In 1854 a foundry was already founded for firearms production, soon joined by an artillery foundry and three ammunition plants. The Anglo-Satsuma war of 1863 gave the Satsuma officials a further incentive for more extensive military reforms due to
7800-434: The ensuing Boshin War . From the start, the Satsuma Province had generally been in favour of the opening and modernization of Japan. Although the Namamugi Incident was seen as unfortunate, it was taken not to be characteristic of Satsuma's policy, and was instead branded as an example of anti-foreign sonnō jōi sentiment, as a justification to a strong Western show of force. Naval forces from Great Britain , France ,
7920-406: The force. It was intended for the 900 men of the Denshutai to be dispersed amongst the myriad of Shogunate armies to train and re-organise them though this did not occur due to the outbreak of hostilities. The Shogun additionally possessed 302 Shinsengumi police forces who were intensely loyal to the Shogunate. The Shogunate navy also contained 3,000 sailors who acted as infantry on Hokkaido towards
8040-418: The future to the United States, under the "most favoured nation" provision. Several foreign nations soon followed suit and obtained treaties with Japan (the Ansei Five-Power Treaties , with the United States ( Harris Treaty ) on July 29, 1858, the Netherlands ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan ) on August 18, Russia ( Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan ) August 19,
8160-504: The guerilla corps ( yugekitai ) under Hitomi Katsutarō , as well as several more French advisers (Fortant, Garde, Marlin, Bouffier). On October 26, Edo was renamed Tokyo , and the Meiji period officially started. Aizu was besieged starting that month, leading to the mass suicide of the Byakkotai (White Tiger Corps) young warriors. After a protracted month-long battle, Aizu finally admitted defeat on November 6. Following defeat on Honshū , Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hokkaidō with
8280-418: The harbor. The ships of Perry were equipped with new Paixhans shell guns , capable of destroying buildings by delivering explosive shells at high velocity. In response to the Perry Expedition and increasing incursions of foreign warships into Japanese territorial waters, several modern sailing frigates, including Shōhei Maru and Asahi Maru , were constructed on orders of the Tokugawa shogunate by
8400-408: The harbour of Hyōgo in November 1865. Other displays of force were made by foreign forces, until the Emperor finally agreed to change his total opposition to the Treaties, by formally allowing the shōgun to handle negotiations with foreign powers. An agreements providing for the tariff revision was signed in June 1866. These conflicts led to the realization that head-on conflict with Western nations
8520-491: The head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki , who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school —based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, and the turning back of the West. Japanese historian Motohiko Izawa stated in his book, "The United States simply aimed to conduct business, which wasn't
8640-527: The hope of staging a counter-attack together with the northern daimyōs . He was accompanied by a handful of French military advisers, notably Jules Brunet , who had formally resigned from the French Army to accompany the rebels. After Yoshinobu's surrender, he was placed under house arrest , and stripped of all titles, land and power. He was later released, when he demonstrated no further interest and ambition in national affairs. He retired to Shizuoka ,
8760-510: The influence of the British minister Harry Parkes , foreign nations signed a strict neutrality agreement, according to which they could not intervene or provide military supplies to either side until the resolution of the conflict. Saigō Takamori led the victorious imperial forces north and east through Japan, winning the Battle of Kōshū-Katsunuma . He eventually surrounded Edo in May 1868, leading to its unconditional defeat after Katsu Kaishū ,
8880-404: The intervention at Shimonoseki, foreign nations agreed to reduce the amount in exchange for a ratification of the Harris Treaty by the Emperor, a lowering of customs tariffs to a uniform 5%, and the opening of the harbours of Hyōgo (modern Kōbe ) and Osaka to foreign trade. In order to press their demands more forcefully, a squadron of four British, one Dutch and three French warships were sent to
9000-614: The intrusion of an American warship in 1837 in Kagoshima Bay , and from Saga Domain and Chōshū Domain , all southern domains mostly exposed to Western intrusions. These domains also studied the manufacture of Western weapons. By 1852 Satsuma and Saga had reverberatory furnaces to produce the iron necessary for firearms. Following the Morrison incident involving the Morrison under Charles W. King in 1837, Egawa Hidetatsu
9120-417: The main institution of Western learning sponsored by the shogunate. It attracted some of the most outstanding scholars studying Dutch scientific works and documents, who also later studied English, French, German, and Russian texts. It was renamed Yōsho shirabesho ( 洋書調所 ) (institute for the study of Western books) in 1862, and Kaiseijo [ ja ] ( 開成所 ) in 1863. After the Boshin War , it
9240-586: The military prestige of Napoleon III at that time, acquired through his successes in the Crimean War and the Second Italian War of Independence . The shogunate took major steps towards the construction of a modern and powerful military: a navy with a core of eight steam warships had been built over several years and was already the strongest in Asia . In 1865, Japan's first modern naval arsenal
9360-433: The ministers declaring that the shogunate was abolished, that harbours would be open in accordance with International treaties, and that foreigners would be protected. The ministers finally decided to recognize the new government. The rise of anti-foreign sentiment nonetheless led to several attacks on foreigners in the following months. Eleven French sailors from the corvette Dupleix were killed by samurai of Tosa in
9480-544: The morning of July 16, 1863, under sanction by Minister Pruyn, in an apparent swift response to the attack on the Pembroke , the U.S. frigate USS Wyoming under Captain McDougal sailed into the strait and single-handedly engaged the U.S.-built but poorly manned fleet. For almost two hours before withdrawing, McDougal sank one Japanese vessel and severely damaged the other two, along with some forty Japanese casualties, while
9600-516: The new institute was a reaction to the unimpeded arrival of the American warships in 1853 under the command of Admiral Matthew C. Perry . The foreigners also brought with them gifts, which baffled and unsettled the Tokugawa regime as they exposed the inferior state of the Japanese coastal defense. Bansho Shirabesho functioned as a sort of bureau of the Tokugawa Shogunate and considered a politically charged institution that emerged from
9720-554: The other hand, the daimyō of Nagaoka managed to procure two of the three Gatling guns in Japan and 2,000 modern French rifles from the German weapons dealer Henry Schnell . The coalition crumbled, and on October 12, 1868, the fleet left Sendai for Hokkaidō , after having acquired two more ships ( Oe and Hōō , previously borrowed by Sendai from the shogunate), and about 1,000 more troops: remaining shogunate troops under Ōtori Keisuke , Shinsengumi troops under Hijikata Toshizō ,
9840-468: The perceived imposition of foreignness on Japanese body politic. The establishment of Bansho Shirabesho as an independent institution was also partly attributed to the removal of the translation of sensitive military and political secrets from the Bureau of Astronomy. The activities and norms of the institution intersected with the translation initiatives of employed translators. The school eventually became
9960-537: The place to which his ancestor Tokugawa Ieyasu had also retired. Most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, but a core of domains in the North, supporting the Aizu clan, continued the resistance. In May, several northern daimyōs formed an Alliance to fight Imperial troops, the coalition of northern domains composed primarily of forces from the domains of Sendai , Yonezawa , Aizu , Shōnai and Nagaoka Domain , with
10080-501: The poor military performance of its forces. The Daimyo therefore hired several French officers and began enrolling peasants into the military. The Choshu domain in 1840 contained 11,000 samurai and was also more amenable to reform, and more ambitious than Satsuma in reform and the recruitment of peasantry with the formation of the 300 strong Kihetai, a mixed formation of samurai, townsmen, and peasants, with ronin officers with tough discipline and western uniforms. A second and third company
10200-424: The price of food drastically. Incidents occurred between brash foreigners and the Japanese. Japan's monetary system, based on Tokugawa coinage , also broke down. Traditionally, Japan's exchange rate between gold and silver was 1:5, whereas international rates were of the order of 1:15. This led to massive purchases of gold by foreigners, and ultimately forced the Japanese authorities to devalue their currency. There
10320-459: The prior decade. Increasing Western influence in the economy led to a decline similar to that of other Asian countries at the time. An alliance of western samurai, particularly the domains of Chōshū , Satsuma , and Tosa , and court officials secured control of the Imperial Court and influenced the young Emperor Meiji . Tokugawa Yoshinobu , the sitting shōgun , realizing the futility of his situation, abdicated and handed over political power to
10440-407: The prospective location for a US consulate, some construed the natural disasters as demonstration of the displeasure of the gods. As the earthquakes were blamed by many Japanese on a giant catfish ( Namazu ) thrashing about, Ukiyo-e prints depicting namazu became very popular during this time. Following the nomination of Townsend Harris as the U.S. Consul in 1856 and two years of negotiation,
10560-557: The remnants of the navy and his handful of French advisers. Together they organized a government, with the objective of establishing an independent island nation dedicated to the development of Hokkaidō. They formally established the Republic of Ezo on the American model, Japan's only ever republic, and Enomoto was elected as president, with a large majority. The republic tried to reach out to foreign legations present in Hakodate, such as
10680-416: The resignation of himself, and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shōgun died without an heir , Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shōgun , a reformist candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyōs . The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing
10800-584: The revolt, which ended with the surrender of the rebels on 14 January 1865. In the Kinmon Incident on 20 August 1864, troops from Chōshū Domain attempted to take control of Kyoto and the Imperial Palace in order to pursue the objective of Sonnō Jōi . This also led to a punitive expedition by the Tokugawa government, the First Chōshū expedition . As the Bakufu proved incapable to pay the $ 3,000,000 indemnity demanded by foreign nations for
10920-531: The second largest purchaser of western ships after the Shogunate itself, of which nearly all were British-built. As Satsuma samurai became dominant in the Imperial navy after the war, the navy frequently sought assistance from the British. In preparation for future conflict, the shogunate also modernized its forces. In line with Parkes's strategy, the British, previously the shogunate's primary foreign partner, proved reluctant to provide assistance. The Tokugawa thus came to rely mainly on French expertise, comforted by
11040-591: The senior councillors, Abe Masahiro , was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security , Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors, who wanted to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor, who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the feudal daimyō rulers, who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe compromised by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854,
11160-620: The severest and most merited chastisement American influence, which had been of high importance in the beginning, waned after 1861 due to the advent of the American Civil War (1861–1865) that monopolized all available U.S. resources. This influence would be replaced by that of the British, the Dutch and the French. The two ringleaders of the opposition to the bakufu were from the Satsuma (present day Kagoshima prefecture) and Chōshū (present-day Yamaguchi prefecture) provinces, two of
11280-458: The shelling of foreign shipping in the port of Shimonoseki . During 1864, these actions were successfully countered by armed retaliations by foreign powers, such as the British bombardment of Kagoshima and the multinational Shimonoseki campaign . At the same time, the forces of Chōshū Domain , together with rōnin , raised the Hamaguri rebellion trying to seize the city of Kyoto , where
11400-529: The shogunal succession. His efforts culminated in March 1863 with his " order to expel barbarians ". Although the shogunate had no intention of enforcing it, the order nevertheless inspired attacks against the shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan: the most famous incident was that of the English trader Charles Lennox Richardson , for whose death the Tokugawa government had to pay an indemnity of one hundred thousand British pounds . Other attacks included
11520-445: The shogunate often wore French and British uniforms. Traditional troops however retained their samurai clothes. Some of the Imperial troops wore peculiar headgear, involving the use of long, colored, "bear" hair. The "red bear" ( 赤熊 , shaguma ) wigs indicated officers from Tosa, the "white bear" ( 白熊 , haguma ) wigs officers from Chōshū, and the "black bear" (黒熊, koguma ) wigs officers from Satsuma. The Sampeitai formed
11640-424: The shogunate was thrown into turmoil. Commodore Perry was fully prepared for hostilities if his negotiations with the Japanese failed, and threatened to open fire if the Japanese refused to negotiate. He gave them two white flags, telling them to hoist the flags when they wished a bombardment from his fleet to cease and to surrender. To demonstrate his weapons, Perry ordered his ships to attack several buildings around
11760-454: The shogunate, Mōri ordered his forces to fire without warning on all foreign ships traversing Shimonoseki Strait . Under pressure from the Emperor, the Shogun was also forced to issue a declaration promulgating the end of relations with foreigners. The order was forwarded to foreign legations by Ogasawara Zusho no Kami on June 24, 1863: The orders of the Tycoon , received from Kyoto , are to
11880-402: The shogunate, under Saigo's direction, had been hiding and creating trouble. The residence was burned down, and many opponents killed or later executed. The forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were fully modernized with Armstrong Guns , Minié rifles and one Gatling gun . The shogunate forces had been slightly lagging in terms of equipment, although the French military mission had recently trained
12000-399: The side of the Imperial Court. These included the daimyōs of Yodo and Tsu in February, tilting the military balance in favour of the Imperial side. After the defections, Yoshinobu, apparently distressed by the imperial approval given to the actions of Satsuma and Chōshū, fled Osaka aboard the Japanese battleship Kaiyō Maru , withdrawing to Edo. Demoralized by his flight and by
12120-417: The smaller but relatively modernized Imperial faction, and, after a series of battles culminating in the surrender of Edo , Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Those loyal to the Tokugawa shōgun retreated to northern Honshū and later to Hokkaidō , where they founded the Republic of Ezo . The defeat at the Battle of Hakodate broke this last holdout and left the Emperor as the de facto supreme ruler throughout
12240-635: The strongest tozama anti-shogunate domains in Edo-period Japan. Satsuma military leaders Saigō Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi were brought together with Katsura Kogoro of Chōshū, notably through the efforts of Sakamoto Ryōma . As the former happened to be directly involved in the murder of Richardson, and the latter in the attacks on foreign shipping in Shimonoseki, and as the bakufu declared itself unable to placate them, Allied forces decided to mount direct military expeditions. In
12360-512: The war. The Shogunate as well as the Imperial side also used native Japanese cannons, with Japan making cannons domestically as far back as 1575. In the area of warships also, some of the most recent ironclads such as the Kōtetsu coexisted with older types of steamboats and even traditional sailboats. The shogunate initially had the edge in warships, and it had the vision to buy the Kōtetsu . The ship
12480-470: The whole of Japan, completing the military phase of the Meiji Restoration . Around 69,000 men were mobilized during the conflict, and of these about 8,200 were killed. In the end, the victorious Imperial faction abandoned its objective of expelling foreigners from Japan and instead adopted a policy of continued modernization with an eye to the eventual renegotiation of the unequal treaties with
12600-448: Was a massive outflow of gold from Japan, as foreigners rushed to exchange their silver for "token" silver Japanese coinage and again exchange these against gold, giving a 200% profit to the transaction. In 1860, about 4 million ryōs thus left Japan, that is about 70 tons of gold. This effectively destroyed Japan's gold standard system, and forced it to return to weight-based system with International rates. The Bakufu instead responded to
12720-585: Was again renamed and became the Kaisei gakkō [ ja ] ( 開成学校 ) , which was managed under the Government of Meiji Japan . As the Kaisei gakkō , the institute became one of the predecessor organizations which merged to form University of Tokyo . This Japanese history–related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bakumatsu Bakumatsu ( 幕末 , ' End of
12840-494: Was already torn by its own civil war . Following these successes against the imperial movement in Japan, the shogunate was able to reassert a certain level of primacy at the end of 1864. The traditional policy of sankin-kōtai was reinstated, and remnants of the rebellions of 1863–64 as well as the Shishi movement were brutally suppressed throughout the land. The military interventions by foreign powers also proved that Japan
12960-410: Was between the pro-imperial nationalists called ishin shishi and the shogunate forces, which included the elite shinsengumi swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of bakumatsu to seize personal power. Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent: first, growing resentment on the part of
13080-400: Was blocked from delivery by foreign powers on grounds of neutrality once the conflict had started, and was ultimately delivered to the Imperial faction shortly after the Battle of Toba–Fushimi . Uniforms were Western-style for modernized troops (usually dark, with variations in the shape of the helmet: tall conical for Satsuma, flat conical for Chōshū, rounded for the shogunate). Officers of
13200-712: Was built in Yokosuka by the French engineer Léonce Verny . In January 1867, a French military mission arrived to reorganize the shogunate army and create the Denshūtai elite force, and an order was placed with the US to buy the French-built ironclad warship CSS Stonewall , which had been built for the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War . Due to the Western powers' declared neutrality,
13320-510: Was established at Edo. In 1857, it acquired its first screw-driven steam warship, the Kanrin Maru . Scientific knowledge grew swiftly from the existing foundation of Western learning ( rangaku ("Dutch learning") ). Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening shogunate councils to the tozama daimyō , and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864). At
13440-643: Was issued by the shogunate, prohibiting any contacts with foreigners; it remained in place until 1842. Meanwhile, Japan endeavoured to learn about foreign sciences through rangaku ("Western studies"). To reinforce Japan's capability to carry on the orders to repel Westerners, some such as the Nagasaki -based Takashima Shūhan managed to obtain weapons through the Dutch at Dejima , such as field guns, mortars and firearms . Domains sent students to learn from Takashima in Nagasaki, from Satsuma Domain after
13560-469: Was killed every month. The Richardson Affair occurred in September 1862, forcing foreign nations to take decisive action in order to protect foreigners and guarantee the implementation of Treaty provisions. In May 1863, the US legation in Edo was torched. During the 1860s, peasant uprisings and urban disturbances multiplied. A "World renewal" movement appeared, as well as religious festivals and protests such as
13680-435: Was met by the shogun. Ironically, the largest provider of men under the new system was the Satsuma domain providing 4,800 infantry, 100 cavalry and 8 guns with 100 men. In 1863 the Shogun allowed the recruitment of commoners but by 1867 this force had only reached 5,900 infantry. In order to augment this force the Shogun raised 5 battalions of Yugekitai. The Shogun also disbanded the city and legation guard units and added them to
13800-532: Was no military match against the Allies. The sonnō jōi movement thus lost its initial impetus. The structural weaknesses of the Bakufu however remained an issue, and the focus of opposition would then shift to creating a strong government under a single authority. On 2 May 1864, the Mito rebellion erupted against the power of the shogunate in the name of the sonnō jōi . The Shogunate managed to send an army to quell
13920-506: Was not a solution for Japan. As the Bakufu continued its modernization efforts, Western daimyōs (especially from Satsuma and Chōshū) also continued to modernize intensively in order to build a stronger Japan and to establish a more legitimate government under Imperial power. The shogunate led a second punitive expedition against Chōshū from June 1866, but the shogunate was defeated by the more modern and better organized troops of Chōshū. The new shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu managed to negotiate
14040-411: Was occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series of arsons in Edo, starting with the burning of the outer works of Edo Castle , the main Tokugawa residence. This was blamed on Satsuma rōnin , who on that day attacked a government office. The next day shogunate forces responded by attacking the Edo residence of the daimyō of Satsuma, where many opponents of
14160-469: Was put in charge of establishing the defense of Tokyo Bay against Western intrusions in 1839. After the humiliating defeat suffered by Qing China in the First and Second Opium Wars , many Japanese officials realized that their traditional methods would be no match for western powers. To deal with Western powers on equal terms, Western guns were studied and demonstrations made in 1841 by Takashima Shūhan to
14280-454: Was raised increasing its strength to 900 men. The usage of gunboat diplomacy brought in many volunteers and another 980 men were formed in several shotai or auxiliary militia, with 60 units in total by 1865. These shotai were added to the Choshu military and given modern weaponry by 1868. By 1868 there were 150 shotai and they were regularised and when added to the regular domain army contained
14400-538: Was to contain half seishi (richer samurai) and half Kashi (poorer Samurai). The recruitment was to be men between 17 and 45 with service terms of 5 years with battalions of 600 companies of 120 and platoons of 40. The daimyo were allowed to substitute manpower with money to purchase firearms and rice to feed the soldiers something the Shoguate desperately needed both of. However, the plan immediately ran into issues as resistance to providing men and money to purchase firearms
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