Misplaced Pages

#2997

173-727: A section of the Lakhm dwelt in Syria at least from the 4th century, during Byzantine rule, and remained allies of Byzantium until the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 630s. Thereafter, they became one the main tribes that made up the Umayyad Caliphate 's Arab tribal soldiery in Palestine and were closely associated with the larger tribe of Judham . The Lakhm is best known for its Nasrid, or more commonly ' Lakhmid ', house, which ruled

346-457: A Kenite element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city, and Heber is the name for a Kenite clan. In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centres under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons of Anak ( b nê/y lîdê hāʿănaq ). or may reflect some Kenite and Kenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to

519-655: A church , and then a mosque . With the exception of a brief Crusader control , successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 6th century CE until the Ottoman Empire 's dissolution following World War I , when the city became part of British Mandatory Palestine . The 1929 riots and the Arab uprising of 1936–39 led the British government to evacuate the Jewish community from Hebron. The 1948 Arab–Israeli War saw

692-681: A decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July. This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of

865-502: A basic sense of 'unite' and connoting a range of meanings from "colleague" to "friend". In the proper name Hebron , the original sense may have been alliance . The Arabic name for Hebron, al-Khalīl , emerged as the city's actual name in the 13th century. Earlier Muslim sources refer to the city as Ḥabra or Ḥabrūn. The name al-Khalīl derives from the Qur'anic epithet for Abraham , Khalil al-Rahman ( إبراهيم خليل الرحمن ) "Beloved of

1038-494: A campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumoured that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman, the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza of Bayt Jibrin ), but he managed to return to the area in 1848. According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves

1211-570: A cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj , 305 kilometres (190 miles) north of Damascus. On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander-in-chief of the Islamic army . Abu Ubaidah got

1384-636: A confederated settlement of four families. The story of Abraham's purchase of the Cave of the Patriarchs from the Hittites constitutes a seminal element in what was to become the Jewish attachment to the land in that it signified the first "real estate" of Israel long before the conquest under Joshua. In settling here, Abraham is described as making his first covenant , an alliance with two local Amorite clans who became his ba'alei brit or masters of

1557-551: A courtyard from the small Karaite community, in which he established the Sephardic Abraham Avinu Synagogue . In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded the Hesed Le'Abraham yeshiva in Hebron, which attracted many students. In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717 to 1729, and were "almost crushed" from the extortion practiced by

1730-528: A covered tank outside the town. The Sanctuary stood on the town's southern border, enclosed by four walls. Barley was the primary crop, with abundant olives. Visitors were provided with bread, olives, lentils cooked in olive oil, and raisins. Hebron had numerous mills operated by oxen and mules, along with working girls baking bread. The hospitality extended to about three-pound loaves of bread and meals for every arriving person, including up to 500 pilgrims on certain days. The tradition survives to this day in

1903-548: A decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (or Byzantines as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in

SECTION 10

#1732772630003

2076-544: A decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at Jabiya . This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While

2249-647: A full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history , starting with a confrontation with the Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid . After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq , Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted

2422-466: A group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood. Beit HaShalom , established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation. All

2595-566: A major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant. Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception. Yazdegerd III lost his army at the Battle of Qadisiyyah in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of Persia . With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured

2768-536: A pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus. Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behaviour of Hebronite settlers. Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja'bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and

2941-511: A relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome ( Beqaa Valley ) led by Schinos;

3114-615: A retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in a bus bombing in Jerusalem. In 2007, the Palestinian population in H2 declined due to Israeli security measures such as extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement, the closure of Palestinian businesses and settler harassment. Palestinians are barred from using Al-Shuhada Street ,

3287-589: A scene witnessed by representatives of the English, French and other Western consulates. After crushing all opposition, Kamil appointed Salama Amr, brother and rival of Abd al Rachman, as nazir of the Hebron region. Relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years. In 1866, Hungarian Jews of the Karlin Hasidic court settled in Hebron. According to Nadav Shragai , Arab-Jewish relations were good, and Alter Rivlin, who spoke Arabic and Syrian-Aramaic,

3460-644: A semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bostra . The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was Jabalah ibn al-Aiham . The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius , after re-capturing Syria from

3633-516: A shooting attack on the road to Hebron On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish baby Shalhevet Pass . The sniper was caught in 2002. Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks. In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as

SECTION 20

#1732772630003

3806-440: A siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August near Lake Tiberias , 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in the Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time Heraclius' reinforcements had reached

3979-583: A significant role in the economic development of Jordan. Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period, Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town. During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed. After the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel occupied Hebron along with

4152-712: A vassal kingdom of the Persian Sasanian Empire in the 4th–6th centuries from its capital in al-Hira in Iraq ( lower Mesopotamia ). The founder of the Lakhmids' kingdom was Amr ibn Adi ibn Nasr, who is identified as the 'Amr ibn Lakhm' mentioned in two pre-Islamic inscriptions, one in Pahlavi / Parthian and the other in Coptic . His reign is traditionally dated to c.  293–302 CE. Amr's successor, his son Imru al-Qays I ibn Amr , initially ruled over

4325-756: A veil in order to pass as Muslim women and enter the Cave of the Patriarchs without being recognized as Jews. Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg's Journal (1449), by Felix Fabri (1483) and by Mejr ed-Din It was in this period, also, that the Mamluk Sultan Qa'it Bay revived the old custom of the Hebron "table of Abraham", and exported it as a model for his own madrasa in Medina . This became an immense charitable establishment near

4498-655: A wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more". Similar information is given in Ibn at Athir 's Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob ...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise been disturbed , and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver." The Damascene nobleman and historian Ibn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to

4671-473: Is a Palestinian city in the southern West Bank , 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Jerusalem . Hebron is capital of the West Bank's largest governorate , known as Hebron Governorate . With a population of 201,063 in the city limits, the adjacent metropolitan area within the governorate is home to over 700,000 people. Hebron spans across an area of 74.102 square kilometres (28.611 sq mi). It

4844-542: Is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist. A violent episode occurred May 2, 1980, when an Al Fatah squad killed five yeshiva students and one other person on their way home from Sabbath prayer at the Tomb of the Patriarchs . The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join

5017-531: Is home to numerous shopping malls. The Old City of Hebron features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars . It is recognized as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO . Hebron is also known as a regional educational and medical hub. The name "Hebron" appears to trace back to two northwest Semitic languages , which coalesce in the form ḥbr , having reflexes in Hebrew and Amorite , with

5190-568: Is the third largest city in the country , followed by Gaza and Jerusalem . The city is often considered one of the four holy cities in Judaism as well as in Islam and Christianity . It is considered one of the oldest cities in the Levant. According to the Bible , Abraham settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as burial place for his wife Sarah . Biblical tradition holds that

5363-518: Is to "ensure the security of the Jewish settlers" and that Israeli "soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence". Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to the Palestinian Authority . IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents, not to police

Banu Lakhm - Misplaced Pages Continue

5536-418: Is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not

5709-500: The Battle of Yarmouk in 636. Groups of the Lakhm were also counted in the Muslims' ranks as well. In the assessment of the historian Fred Donner, pre-existing divisions and rivalries within the Lakhm likely explains the participation of Lakhm tribesmen on both the Byzantine and Muslim sides at Yarmouk. The unclear allegiance of the Lakhm and Judham during the conquest is reflected in Caliph Umar's order to exclude them from shares in

5882-520: The Haram , distributing daily some 1,200 loaves of bread to travellers of all faiths. The Italian rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490: I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of

6055-579: The Hejaz ( Medina and Mecca ) in 682–683. Along with the Judham, and the tribes of Kinana , Azd Sarat , Khuza'a , and Khath'am which arrived with the conquest armies, the Lakhm formed the Arab tribal soldiery of Jund Filastin (military district of Palestine) during the early Islamic period, according to the 9th-century historian Khalifa ibn Khayyat . Another 9th-century historian, al-Ya'qubi , also names

6228-598: The Israeli occupation of the West Bank . The 1997 protocol divided the city into two sectors—H1 Hebron, controlled by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2 Hebron , managed by Israeli authorities. All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian Authority and Israel via the COGAT . The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body,

6401-808: The Jewish Underground . In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the Jewish Kach movement, a designated terrorist organization, whose first operations started there, and provided a model for similar behaviour in other settlements. On July 26, 1983, Israeli settlers attacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others. The 1994 Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern

6574-709: The Negev , Sinai , and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as Palaestina Salutaris , sometimes called Palaestina III or Palaestina Tertia . Part of the area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of the Ghassanids ' symmachos . During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars , beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over

6747-784: The Sassanians , set up new defense lines from Gaza to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled the Muslims , advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops. The 7th century

6920-528: The Sassanid general Shahrbaraz in 614 when Khosrau II 's armies besieged and took Jerusalem. Jews were not permitted to reside in Hebron under Byzantine rule. The sanctuary itself however was spared by the Persians, in deference to the Jewish population, who were numerous in the Sassanid army . Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to the Islamic invasion in the 7th century , possibly

7093-606: The Seljuk period , the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, known as the " haver of the graves of the patriarchs." The Caliphate lasted in the area until 1099, when the Christian Crusader Godfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham". It was designated capital of the southern district of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and given, in turn, as

Banu Lakhm - Misplaced Pages Continue

7266-514: The Syrian Desert . It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at an oasis . Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria. Ain Tamer , Quraqir, Suwa, Arak , and

7439-405: The Tribe of Judah as a whole, or specifically Caleb the Judahite. The town itself, with some contiguous pasture land, is then said to have been granted to the Levites of the clan of Kohath , while the fields of the city, as well as its surrounding villages were assigned to Caleb ( Joshua 21:3–12; 1 Chronicles 6:54–56 ), who expels the three giants, Sheshai , Ahiman , and Talmai , who ruled

7612-451: The old Jewish cemetery there. Sunni imam Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) was penalised by the religious authorities in Damascus for refusing to recognise Hebron as a Muslim pilgrimage site, a view also held by his teacher Ibn Taymiyyah . The Jewish-Italian traveller, Meshullam of Volterra (1481) found not more than twenty Jewish families living in Hebron. and recounted how the Jewish women of Hebron would disguise themselves with

7785-435: The 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at the fifth Palestinian Congress , after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections. Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when an earthquake struck Palestine on July 11, 1927. The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to

7958-482: The 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders. Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929. The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers', and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered

8131-414: The 5th century as commanders in Sasanian campaigns against the Byzantines, rulers over the Arab tribes of northern Arabia, one-time power players in Sasanian succession politics, and builders of palaces in al-Hira. Lakhmid history in the 6th century was marked by the long reign of king al-Mundhir III ( r.  503–554 ), who helped extend and protect Sasanian influence in southern and western Arabia, and

8304-556: The 630s. According to the historians Henri Lammens and Irfan Shahid , the Lakhm's arrival to Syria dates to the 4th century, evidencing this on the Namara inscription , the epitaph of Imru al-Qays I ibn Amr found in southern Syria, which is dated to 328 CE. The Lakhm of Syria dwelt in the southern parts of the region, near and among the tribes of Judham and Amila , though they were probably earlier-established there than both. The three tribes became closely allied and formed fictitious genealogical links, making them 'brother' tribes. In

8477-472: The Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanids' Arab allies, the Lakhmids . During the Roman period , beginning after the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70 , the entire region ( Judea , Samaria , and the Galilee ) was renamed Palaestina , subdivided into Diocese I and II. The Romans also renamed an area of land including

8650-435: The Arab tribes of the upper Euphrates and the Syrian Desert before converting to Christianity and defecting to the Roman Empire . Little is heard again of the Lakhmids of Iraq until the 5th century. Irfan Shahid suspects this part of the tribe either migrated back to Iraq around that time or had remained there, not accompanying their king Imru al-Qays and the rest of the Lakhm to Syria ( see below ). Lakhmid kings re-emerge in

8823-407: The Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of the Byzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad , with the Battle of Muʿtah in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two Rashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad: Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab . During this time, Khalid ibn al-Walid

SECTION 50

#1732772630003

8996-430: The Baptist ). In 1170, Benjamin of Tudela visited Hebron, referred to as in its Frankish name St. Abram de Bron . He mentioned the great church called St. Abram, which was once a Jewish place of worship during the time of Muslim rule. The Gentiles had erected six tombs there, claimed to be those of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah. The custodians collected money from pilgrims by presenting these tombs as

9169-467: The Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida did not have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy

9342-498: The Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl , which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. Khalid, commanding

9515-440: The Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off-limits for Arab Hebronites. Following the 1995 Oslo Agreement and subsequent 1997 Hebron Agreement , Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority , with the exception of Hebron, which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes the Old City of Hebron – remained under

9688-443: The Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron. The largest city in the southern West Bank, Hebron is chief commercial and industrial center in the region. It is a busy hub of trade, generating roughly a third of the area's GDP , largely due to the sale of limestone from quarries in its area. Hebron has a local reputation for its grapes, figs, ceramics, plastics, pottery workshops, metalworking and glassblowing industry. The city

9861-441: The Edomite God Qōs . Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from the Babylonian exile ( Nehemiah 11:25 ). During the Maccabean revolt , Hebron was burnt and plundered by Judah Maccabee who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE. The city appears to have long resisted Hasmonean dominance , however, and indeed as late as the First Jewish–Roman War was still considered Idumean . The present day city of Hebron

10034-425: The Egyptian Sultan As-Salih Ayyub , managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements. In 1244, the Khwarazmians destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched. In 1260, after Mamluk Sultan Baibars defeated the Mongol army, the minarets were built onto

10207-457: The Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply and Glubb Pasha sent 350 Arab Legionnaires and an armoured car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there. When the Armistice was signed, the city thus fell under Jordanian military control . The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into

10380-479: The Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines. Medina soon recruited tribal contingents from all over the Arabian peninsula . Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah . The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised

10553-462: The IDF. The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this. Over the period of the First Intifada and Second Intifada , the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first and second Intifada (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and

SECTION 60

#1732772630003

10726-581: The Israeli courts. At the beginning of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , Egypt took control of Hebron. Between May and October, Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs. Both countries appointed military governors in the town, hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials. The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro-Jordanian mayor to support their rule, at least superficially, but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes. Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed. By late 1948, part of

10899-435: The Israeli settlers. IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with. Since The Oslo Agreement , violent episodes have been recurrent in the city. The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre took place on February 25, 1994, when Baruch Goldstein , an Israeli physician and resident of Kiryat Arba , opened fire on Muslims at prayer in the Ibrahimi Mosque , killing 29, and wounding 125 before

11072-476: The Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of the UN partition vote , the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city. Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through

11245-402: The Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008. Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel. He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in

11418-470: The Jews, just like the Jews'." By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian, the Lubavitch Hasidic movement having established a community in 1823. The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha led to a decline in the local glass industry. His plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, making firewood for

11591-430: The Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah. Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Arabah where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea . As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at

11764-419: The Kenizzites appear to be close to Hurrian . This suggests that behind the Anakim legend lies some early Hurrian population. In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of the Nephilim . The Book of Genesis mentions that it was formerly called Kirjath-arba , or "city of four", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters, four hills, or

11937-448: The Levant ( Arabic : فَتْحُ الشَّام , romanized :  Fatḥ al-šām ; lit.   ' Conquest of Syria ' ), or Arab conquest of Syria , was a 634–638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate . A part of the wider Arab-Byzantine Wars , as well as the larger Muslim colonial project, the Levant was brought under Arab Muslim rule and developed into the provincial region of Bilad al-Sham . Clashes between

12110-402: The Merciful" or "Friend of God". Arabic Al-Khalil thus precisely translates the ancient Hebrew toponym Ḥebron , understood as ḥaḇer (friend). Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the Early Bronze Age , covering some 24–30 dunams centered around Tel Rumeida . The city flourished in the 17th–18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire, and

12283-417: The Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat. The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them,

12456-521: The Muslim conquest. Another clan of the tribe, the Banu Hadas, also refrained from joining the rest of the Lakhm at Mu'ta, though information about them is sketchy. In general, the bulk of the Lakhm stood with Byzantium. During the Muslim conquest of Syria, Lakhm tribesmen were counted in the ranks of the Arab tribal fighters led by the Ghassanid chief Jabala ibn al-Ayham in the Byzantine army at

12629-473: The Muslim raid on Tabuk in c.  630 . At least ten men of the Lakhm's Banu al-Dar clan, including the famous Tamim al-Dari , conferred with Muhammad in his capital Medina and converted to Islam. To these men of the Banu al-Dar, Muhammad granted lands in southern Palestine, including Hebron and its surroundings, though these lands were under Byzantine control at the time and the grant only took effect after

12802-511: The Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultan Selim I coincided with

12975-855: The Quarter of the Corner Gate. In the late 19th century the production of Hebron glass declined due to competition from imported European glassware, although it continued to be popular among those who could not afford luxury goods and was sold by Jewish merchants. Glass ornaments from Hebron were exhibited at the World Fair of 1873 in Vienna . A report from the consul of the French Consulate in Jerusalem in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly. While

13148-682: The Quarter of the Silk Merchant ( Harat al-Kazaz ), inhabited by Jews; the Mamluk-era Sheikh's Quarter ( Harat ash Sheikh ) to the north-west; and further north, the Dense Quarter ( Harat al-Harbah ). In 1855, the newly appointed Ottoman pasha ("governor") of the sanjak ("district") of Jerusalem, Kamil Pasha , attempted to put down a rebellion in the Hebron region. Kamil and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855,

13321-470: The Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid." Khalid immediately set out for Syria from Al-Hirah , in Iraq , in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through Raqqa . The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided

13494-512: The Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community, who paid up to avert a threatened catastrophe, after a false allegation was made accusing them of having murdered the son of a local sheikh and throwing his body into a cesspit. > Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas to solicit funds . During the Ottoman period,

13667-567: The United States. The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be'ersheba and Jerusalem, renting homes owned by Arabs, a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants, with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues. During the 1929 Hebron massacre , Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men, women and children and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked; 435 Jews survived by virtue of

13840-590: The Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat . The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached

14013-653: The West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada, and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighbourhoods. On November 15, 2002, 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander Colonel Dror Weinberg and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) in an ambush . Two Temporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in

14186-581: The Zionists. Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron. During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 per cent of the political leadership. The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott

14359-489: The advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed the siege of Bosra , which surrendered some time in mid-July 634 CE, effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty. Here Khalid took over

14532-576: The advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking the River Jordan . The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635. Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February. Umar, after having learned of

14705-620: The approaches of the Balqa . Part of the Lakhm also lived in southern Palestine , west of the Dead Sea. The Islamic prophet Muhammad established contacts with clans of the Lakhm, but the tribe largely remained Christian and allied to the Christian Byzantine Empire along with the Judham. Both tribes fought on behalf of the Byzantines against the Muslims at the Battle of Mu'ta in c.  629 and were targeted, along with other Byzantine-allied Christian Arab tribes, in

14878-495: The army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised the army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective. Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army , Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah

15051-644: The capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army in a quick battle, called the Battle of Marj-al-Rahit . Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be

15224-442: The cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign. Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Ablah , near Zahlé 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled

15397-540: The cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything. A royal domain, Hebron was handed over to Philip of Milly in 1161 and joined with the Seigneurie of Transjordan . A bishop was appointed to Hebron in 1168 and the new cathedral church of St Abraham was built in the southern part of the Haram. In 1167, the episcopal see of Hebron was created along with that of Kerak and Sebastia (the tomb of John

15570-586: The caverns. The mill at Artas was built in 1307, and the profits from its income were dedicated to the hospital in Hebron. Between 1318 and 1320, the Na'ib of Gaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction of Jawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque. Hebron was visited by some important rabbis over the next two centuries, among them Nachmanides (1270) and Ishtori HaParchi (1322) who noted

15743-552: The city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab , 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break

15916-489: The city and build a synagogue there. The name of the city was changed back to Al-Khalil . A Kurdish quarter still existed in the town during the early period of Ottoman rule. Richard the Lionheart retook the city soon after. Richard of Cornwall , brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding between Templars and Hospitallers , whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with

16089-572: The city, Jerusalem's conqueror, Caliph Omar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct. Catholic bishop Arculf , who visited the Holy Land during the Umayyad period , described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there

16262-425: The city. Later, the biblical narrative has King David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years ( 2 Samuel 2:1–3 ). It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint him king of Israel . It was in Hebron again that Absalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David ( 2 Samuel 15:7–10 ). It became one of

16435-544: The command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won

16608-417: The conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre . Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon , Arqa , Byblos and Beirut . By 635 CE , Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem , Caesarea and Ashkelon , were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around

16781-540: The constituents of the Arab tribes in Palestine as Lakhm, Judham, and Kinana, but omits the others, instead adding the Amila, Kinda , and Qays . The 10th-century historian al-Muhallabi mentions that Rafah , south of Gaza , was dominated by the Lakhm and Judham, though it is not clear which time period he is describing. While the Lakhm of Syria and Palestine was almost invariably tied with the Judham, their nisba (epithet) continued to evoke honor due to "its archaic flavour,

16954-467: The conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through

17127-681: The conventional view, some researchers found traces of Edomite presence after the 5th–4th centuries BCE, as the area became Achaemenid province , and, in the wake of Alexander the Great 's conquest, Hebron was throughout the Hellenistic period under the influence of Idumea (as the new area inhabited by the Edomites was called during the Persian , Hellenistic and Roman periods), as is attested by inscriptions for that period bearing names with

17300-473: The country, this did not occur. In December 1948, the Jericho Conference , held by Jordan, was convened to decide the future of the West Bank. Hebron notables, headed by mayor Muhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari , voted in favour of becoming part of Jordan and to recognise Abdullah I of Jordan as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played

17473-599: The covenant . The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual centre was located at Elonei Mamre . Hebrew Bible narrative also describes the city. It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by either Joshua , who is said to have wiped out all of its previous inhabitants, "destroying everything that drew breath, as the Lord God of Israel had commanded", or

17646-569: The crossroads between the Dead Sea to the east, Jerusalem to the north, the Negev and Egypt to the south, and the Shepelah and the coastal plain to the west. Lying along trading routes , it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period. After the destruction of the First Temple , most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled, and according to

17819-502: The dilapidated state of the patriarchs' tombs was restored to a semblance of sumptuous dignity. Ali Bey who, under Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access, reported in 1807 that, all the sepulchres of the patriarchs are covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with gold; those of the wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over

17992-425: The discovery of relics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian. Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166 Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote, On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (17 October), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in

18165-402: The economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, the economy of Hebron was more diverse, including agriculture and livestock herding, alone with glassware manufacturing and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits. Even so, Hebron had an image of being unproductive and an "asylum for the poor and the spiritual". While

18338-576: The entire West Bank, including Hebron, occupied and annexed by Jordan , and since the 1967 Six-Day War , the city has been under Israeli military occupation . Following Israeli occupation, Jewish presence was restored in the city. Since the 1997 Hebron Protocol , most of Hebron has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority . The city is often described as a "microcosm" of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and

18511-630: The establishment of Inquisition commissions by the Catholic Monarchs in Spain in 1478, which ended centuries of the Iberian convivencia (coexistence). The ensuing expulsions of the Jews drove many Sephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with some notable Sephardi kabbalists settling in Hebron. Over the following two centuries, there

18684-466: The exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan. Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force

18857-491: The fief of Saint Abraham, to Geldemar Carpinel , the bishop Gerard of Avesnes, Hugh of Rebecques, Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham. As a Frankish garrison of the Kingdom of Jerusalem , its defence was precarious being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'. The Crusaders converted the mosque and the synagogue into a church. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded

19030-620: The following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders under Baldwin I of Jerusalem , who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Muslim forces off. In the year 1113 during the reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem , according to Ali of Herat (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein". And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against

19203-522: The form of the Takiat Ibrahim soup kitchen, which has been active in providing food for thousands over Ramadan, which coincided with food shortages during the 2024 Israel–Hamas war . Geniza documents from this period mention "the graves of the patriarchs" and attest to the presence of an organised Jewish community in Hebron. The Jews maintained a synagogue near the tomb and earned their livelihood accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants. During

19376-673: The general pillage of the town at least five were killed . In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000. When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem. In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem ( serasker ), Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha , waged

19549-531: The glass industry in Hebron, based on 26 kilns . In 1833, a report on the town appearing in a weekly paper printed by the London-based Religious Tract Society wrote that Hebron's population had 400 Arab families, had numerous well-provisioned shops and that there was a manufactory of glass lamps, which were exported to Egypt . Early 19th-century travellers also noticed Hebron's flourishing agriculture. Apart from glassware, it

19722-638: The glorious memories which it recalled" of the kings of al-Hira, according to Lammens. As late as the 9th and 10th centuries, notable figures in Palestine continued to claim descent from the tribe, such as the scholar Sulayman ibn Ahmad al-Tabarani of Tiberias and messianic anti-Abbasid rebel al-Mubarqa . Muslim conquest of Syria Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The Levant Egypt North Africa Anatolia & Constantinople Border conflicts Sicily and Southern Italy Naval warfare Byzantine reconquest The Muslim conquest of

19895-453: The governor of Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan ( r.  639–661 ), against Caliph Ali ( r.  656–661 ), the Lakhm fought together with the Judham under the same banner and commander, Natil ibn Qays al-Judhami , for Mu'awiya's side. The same had occurred during the battle of Yarmouk and again when the two fought on behalf of Mu'awiya's son, the Umayyad caliph Yazid I , in the Syrian army which suppressed anti-Umayyad rebellions in

20068-621: The great Temple of Jupiter stood. In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa . Emesa and Chalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah , and Maarrat al-Nu'man . Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated

20241-417: The historical city of Tadmur were first to fall to Khalid. Sukhnah , al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Battle of al-Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Bosra ,

20414-557: The kilns scarce. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass. The rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan reduced traffic to Hebron, and the Suez Canal (1869) precipitated a drop in caravan trade. The consequence was a steady deterioration of the local economy. At the time, the town was divided into four quarters: the Ancient Quarter ( Harat al-Kadim ) near the Cave of Machpelah; to its south,

20587-540: The land in and around Hebron belonging to the Tamīm al-Dārī waqf. In 1922, its population stood at 16,577, of which 16,074 (97%) were Muslim, 430 (2.5%) were Jewish and 73 (0.4%) were Christian. During the 1920s, Abd al-Ḥayy al-Khaṭīb was appointed Mufti of Hebron. Before his appointment, he had been a staunch opponent of Haj Amin , supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with

20760-406: The last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar. Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, lasting six days and ending in

20933-566: The latter's daughter (or granddaughter, according to tradition) Manyanh. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front in Iraq , while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III , apparently inviting him to join Islam . When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to

21106-596: The leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them at Hazir 5 kilometres (3 mi) east of Chalcis. The resulting Battle of Hazir even reportedly forced Umar to praise Khalid's military genius, saying, "Khalid is truly the commander. May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been." Hebron Hebron ( / ˈ h iː b r ən , ˈ h ɛ b r ən / ; Arabic : الخليل al-Khalīl , pronunciation or خَلِيل الرَّحْمَن Khalīl al-Raḥmān ; Hebrew : חֶבְרוֹן Ḥevrōn , pronunciation )

21279-508: The letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey." Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of

21452-449: The local economy. As income from commerce declined and tax revenues diminished significantly, the Ottoman government left Hebron to manage its own affairs for the most part, making it "one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine." The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and

21625-459: The military control of Israel. Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. As of 2009 , a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron. The IDF ( Israel Defense Forces ) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from

21798-424: The more recent influx of Ashkenazi Jews . They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist. The British occupied Hebron on December 8, 1917; governance transited to a mandate in 1920. Most of Hebron was owned by old Islamic charitable endowments ( waqfs ), with about 60% of all

21971-430: The north to the top of the Dead Sea . To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine . Syria was mostly made up of Aramaic and Greek speakers with a partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassanid tribe from Yemen to Syria, who converted to Christianity and thereafter ruled

22144-614: The other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus ( Al-Sabboura region). During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard . While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Marj ar-Rum , Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis , where

22317-413: The other, upon the sepulchre of Abraham. Hebron also became known throughout the Arab world for its glass production, abetted by Bedouin trade networks that brought up minerals from the Dead Sea, and the industry is mentioned in the books of 19th century Western travellers to Palestine. For example, Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in

22490-456: The pacts which you make. You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay

22663-592: The patriarchs Abraham, Isaac , and Jacob , along with their wives Sarah, Rebecca , and Leah , were buried in the cave. The city is also recognized in the Bible as the place where David was anointed king of Israel . Following the Babylonian captivity , the Edomites settled in Hebron. During the first century BCE, Herod the Great built the wall that still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs, which later became

22836-464: The period immediately preceding the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 630s, the older-established Lakhm was exceeded in prominence by the Judham and Amila, especially the former, which practically absorbed the tribe. On the eve of the conquest, the Lakhm lived in groups among the Judham in the region extending north of Tabuk through the desert region east of the Arabah Valley and Dead Sea up to

23009-565: The position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus , Amawas , Jaffa , Haifa , Gaza and Yubna in order to complete

23182-453: The principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditional Cities of Refuge . As is shown by the discovery at Lachish , the second most important city in the Kingdom of Judah after Jerusalem, of seals with the inscription lmlk Hebron (to the king Hebron), Hebron continued to constitute an important local economic centre, given its strategic position on

23355-408: The prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout. Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron. In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace. On May 15, 2006, a member of

23528-444: The raid. After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies. Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of Yazdgerd III , the Sassanid emperor . In 635 Yazdgerd III had sought an alliance with Heraclius, marrying

23701-475: The reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest. When the Rashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque. It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus. After the fall of

23874-522: The region between Bosra and Jabiya . The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of

24047-707: The region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire . This expedition was known as the Expedition of Usama bin Zayd and its stated aim was to avenge the Muslim losses at the Battle of Mu'tah , in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah , had been killed. Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory. Muhammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr

24220-588: The rest of the West Bank , establishing a military government to rule the area. In an attempt to reach a land for peace deal, Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan. According to the Allon Plan , the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron. David Ben-Gurion also considered that Hebron

24393-493: The rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century, rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov wrote from Hebron that:"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is a brit milah (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with

24566-429: The sanctuary. Six years later, while on pilgrimage to Hebron, Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary, and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the prior Ayyubid rule. The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th-century and by 1490, not even Muslims were permitted to enter

24739-542: The shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbours, who hid them. Some Hebron Arabs, including Ahmad Rashid al-Hirbawi, president of Hebron chamber of commerce, supported the return of Jews after the massacre. Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but on the eve of the Palestinian Arab revolt (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move

24912-443: The siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa . The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and the Byzantine army was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took

25085-634: The site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by the Supreme Muslim Council . At this time following attempts by the Lithuanian government to draft yeshiva students into the army, the Lithuanian Hebron Yeshiva (Knesses Yisroel) relocated to Hebron, after consultations between Rabbi Nosson Tzvi Finkel , Yechezkel Sarna and Moshe Mordechai Epstein . and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and

25258-404: The small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to

25431-486: The survivors overcame and killed him. Standing orders for Israeli soldiers on duty in Hebron disallowed them from firing on fellow Jews, even if they were shooting Arabs. This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wing Kach party was banned as a result. The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2, closed their vegetable and meat markets, and banned Palestinian cars on Al-Shuhada Street. The park near

25604-405: The territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer Jerusalem . The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate the caliph , due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid

25777-514: The time of the Battle of Yarmouk , lasted until the port fell in 640. According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount . After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with

25950-436: The tombs of the Patriarchs. However, if a Jew offered a special reward, they would open an iron gate leading to a series of empty caves, until reaching the third cave where the actual sepulchers of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs were said to be located. The Kurdish Muslim Saladin retook Hebron in 1187 – again with Jewish assistance according to one late tradition, in exchange for a letter of security allowing them to return to

26123-410: The town". After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron's Terebinth slave-market. The city was part of the Byzantine Empire in Palaestina Prima province at the Diocese of the East . The Byzantine emperor Justinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE, which was later destroyed by

26296-616: The treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months. After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended

26469-399: The uprising. The town was invested and, when its defences fell on August 4, it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha's army. An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted. 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers. Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills. Many Jews fled to Jerusalem, but during

26642-427: The village of Mu'tah , east of the Jordan River and Karak in Karak Governorate , between the forces of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the forces of the Byzantine Empire and their Arab Christian Ghassanid vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as the Muslims ' attempt to take retribution against the Ghassanids after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who

26815-501: The village of Abraham al-Khalil, with a strong fortress and a stone dome over Abraham's sepulchre. The mosque contained the tombs of Isaac, Jacob, and their wives. Surrounding the area were villages with vineyards producing exceptional grapes and apples. Hebron had a public guest house offering lentils and olive oil to both the poor and the rich. The guest house was established through the bequest of Prophet Muhammad's companions, including Tamim-al Dari, and received generous donations. It

26988-441: The war spoils around 638, which otherwise were to be equally divided among the Arab tribes in the Muslim ranks. Nonetheless, the Lakhm's and Judham's presence on the Muslim army's pay roles indicates they were incorporated into the Muslim polity by this time. Throughout the first century of Islamic rule, the Lakhm are almost always counted with the Judham as a single group in the sources. In the Battle of Siffin in 657, which pitted

27161-427: The war with the Byzantines' Arab vassals, the Ghassanids of Syria. The last Lakhmid king, al-Nu'man III ( r.  580–602 ) embraced Christianity and was assassinated by the Sasanian emperor Khosrow II . This brought an end to the Lakhmid kingdom, which inadvertently removed the Persians' bulwark against the Arab tribes in the deserts around Iraq and ultimately paved the way for the Arab Muslim conquest of Iraq in

27334-451: The wealthy merchants of Nablus built fine mansions, housing in Hebron consisted of semi-peasant dwellings. Hebron was described as 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic', and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook, with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews. It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, although the Jewish and Christian communities seem to have been an integral part of

27507-421: Was a major exporter of dibse , grape sugar, from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron. An Arab peasants' revolt broke out in April 1834 when Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population. Hebron, headed by its nazir Abd ar-Rahman Amr, declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush

27680-444: Was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time. Trade greatly expanded, in particular with Bedouins in the Negev ( al-Naqab ) and the population to the east of the Dead Sea ( Baḥr Lūṭ ). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (and Tyre ) founded the Venetian glass industry in the 9th century. Hebron was almost absent from Muslim literature before the 10th century. In 985, al-Muqaddasi described Hebron (Habra) as

27853-439: Was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron. The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century. In 1540, renowned kabbalist Malkiel Ashkenazi bought

28026-420: Was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman–Persian Wars , but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively. Military confrontations with the Byzantine Empire began during the lifetime of Muhammad . The Battle of Mu'tah was fought in September 629 near

28199-429: Was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina . Soon after Abu Bakr 's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina. Whether Abu Bakr intended

28372-623: Was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army. In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows: In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which

28545-452: Was appointed Jewish representative to the city council. During a severe drought in 1869–1871, food in Hebron sold for ten times the normal amount. From 1874, the Hebron district was administered directly from Istanbul as part of the Sanjak of Jerusalem. By 1874, when C.R. Conder visited Hebron under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund , the Jewish community numbered 600 in an overall population of 17,000. The Jews lived in

28718-411: Was en route to Bosra . During the battle the Muslim army was routed. After three Muslim leaders were killed, the command was given to Khalid ibn al-Walid and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces. The surviving Muslim forces retreated to Medina . After the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632, the Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade

28891-417: Was highly regarded as an excellent house of hospitality and charity in the realm of al-Islam. The custom, known as the 'Table of Abraham' ( simāt al-khalil ), was similar to the one established by the Fatimids . In 1047, Nasir-i-Khusraw described Hebron in his Safarnama as having many villages providing revenues for pious purposes. He mentioned a spring flowing from under a stone, with water channeled to

29064-539: Was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637. Umar appointed his close advisor Ali to hold the lieutenancy of Medina. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then captured Beirut . Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria. With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis , which

29237-497: Was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age. This older Hebron was originally a Canaanite royal city. Abrahamic legend associates the city with the Hittites . It has been conjectured that Hebron might have been the capital of Shuwardata of Gath , an Indo-European contemporary of Jerusalem's regent, Abdi-Ḫeba , although the Hebron hills were almost devoid of settlements in the Late Bronze Age. The Abrahamic traditions associated with Hebron are nomadic. This may also reflect

29410-500: Was settled in the valley downhill from Tel Rumeida at the latest by Roman times. Herod the Great , king of Judea, built the wall that still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs . During the First Jewish–Roman War , Hebron was captured and plundered by Simon Bar Giora , a leader of the Zealots , without bloodshed. The "little town" was later laid to waste by Vespasian 's officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis . Josephus wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down

29583-474: Was strategically the most significant Byzantine fort. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guard Anatolia , Heraclius' homeland of Armenia , and the regional capital, Antioch . Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy

29756-412: Was the most important leader of the Rashidun army . It was the first time since the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, that the region was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid Empire ), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian Empire , the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire ) ruling periods. Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to

29929-432: Was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement. Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable, settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters. For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor. Survivors and descendants of

#2997