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55-437: Baravet or Bwaravet (from Ske bwara vet "big stone") is a cluster of villages in south-western Pentecost Island , Vanuatu . The main village of Baravet is located by a river mouth on the coast, along the main north–south road 3 km north of Lonorore Airport . The community has a nakamal , a guesthouse and several small stores. The main village comprises the hamlets of Vanambil, Sovlet and Lalpseh. At Vastamit, across

110-404: A Celtic language , has past, present and future tenses (see Irish conjugation ). The past contrasts perfective and imperfective aspect, and some verbs retain such a contrast in the present. Classical Irish had a three-way aspectual contrast of simple–perfective–imperfective in the past and present tenses. Modern Scottish Gaelic on the other hand only has past, non-past and 'indefinite', and, in

165-604: A copular verb , vé or bé . Verbs in Ske can be linked together in serial verb constructions . Grammatical tense In grammar , tense is a category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of specific forms of verbs , particularly in their conjugation patterns. The main tenses found in many languages include the past , present , and future . Some languages have only two distinct tenses, such as past and nonpast , or future and nonfuture . There are also tenseless languages, like most of

220-412: A hesternal tense , a past tense referring specifically to yesterday (although this name is also sometimes used to mean pre-hodiernal). A tense for after tomorrow is thus called post-crastinal, and one for before yesterday is called pre-hesternal. Another tense found in some languages, including Luganda , is the persistive tense, used to indicate that a state or ongoing action is still the case (or, in

275-556: A perfect aspect , denoting a state following a prior event. Some of the traditional "tenses" express time reference together with aspectual information. In Latin and French , for example, the imperfect denotes past time in combination with imperfective aspect, while other verb forms (the Latin perfect, and the French passé composé or passé simple ) are used for past time reference with perfective aspect. The category of mood

330-464: A first language, and Ske is no longer being actively transmitted to children. A closely related neighbouring language, Sowa , has already been totally displaced by Apma . The number of Ske speakers is estimated at 300. The widely reported figure of 600 is probably an overestimate, since not everybody in the Ske area is fluent in the language. There is no significant dialectal variation within modern Ske, although there are noticeable differences between

385-534: A greater variety of tenses, see the section on possible tenses , above. Fuller information on tense formation and usage in particular languages can be found in the articles on those languages and their grammars. Rapa is the French Polynesian language of the island of Rapa Iti . Verbs in the indigenous Old Rapa occur with a marker known as TAM which stands for tense, aspect, or mood which can be followed by directional particles or deictic particles. Of

440-408: A noun by the addition of a nominalising suffix -an : Modifiers generally come after a noun: Verbs are preceded by markers providing information on the subject and the tense , aspect and mood of an action. These markers differ substantially between older and younger speakers; the newer forms are in brackets below. There is a pattern of verb-consonant mutation whereby v at the start of

495-420: A tense-marked verb (V) and its direct object (O); in other words, they permit [Verb- Adverb -Object] ordering. In contrast, other languages (such as English) do not allow the adverb to intervene between the verb and its direct object, and require [Adverb- Verb -Object] ordering. Tense in syntax is represented by the category label T, which is the head of a TP (tense phrase). In linguistics, a tenseless language

550-568: A tenseless language, say, to express explicitly in the target language all of the information conveyed by the tenses in the source. A few languages have been shown to mark tense information (as well as aspect and mood) on nouns . This may be called nominal tense , or more broadly nominal TAM which includes nominal marking of aspect and mood as well. The syntactic properties of tense have figured prominently in formal analyses of how tense-marking interacts with word order. Some languages (such as French) allow an adverb (Adv) to intervene between

605-463: A three-way aspect contrast in the past: the aorist , the perfect and the imperfect. Both aorist and imperfect verbs can represent a past event: through contrast, the imperfect verb often implies a longer duration (e.g. 'they urged him' vs. 'they persuaded him'). The aorist participle represents the first event of a two-event sequence and the present participle represents an ongoing event at the time of another event. Perfect verbs stood for past actions if

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660-779: A variety of aspects and moods. Arabic verbs have past and non-past; future can be indicated by a prefix. Korean verbs have a variety of affixed forms which can be described as representing present, past and future tenses, although they can alternatively be considered to be aspectual. Similarly, Japanese verbs are described as having present and past tenses, although they may be analysed as aspects. Some Wu Chinese languages, such as Shanghainese , use grammatical particles to mark some tenses. Other Chinese languages and many other East Asian languages generally lack inflection and are considered to be tenseless languages , although they often have aspect markers which convey certain information about time reference. For examples of languages with

715-578: A verb changes to b , and vw to bw . This mutation occurs in imperfective aspect (present tense), and in irrealis mood (future tense): (Among a few older speakers there is also mutation of z to d , but most Ske speakers today use only the d forms.) Hypothetical phrases are marked with mó : Negative phrases are preceded by kare ("not") or a variant: Transitive and intransitive verb forms are distinguished. Transitive verbs are commonly followed or suffixed with -né : Ske makes extensive use of stative verbs for descriptive purposes. Ske has

770-475: A verb stem and adapting them to endings. Endings may vary according to the speech role, the number and the gender of the subject or an object. Sometimes, verb groups function as a unit and supplement inflection for tense (see Latin periphrases ). For details on verb structure, see Latin tenses and Latin conjugation . The paradigms for tenses in Ancient Greek are similar to the ones in Latin, but with

825-438: Is Mwera , a Bantu language of Tanzania. It is also suggested that in 17th-century French, the passé composé served as a hodiernal past. Tenses that contrast with hodiernals, by referring to the past before today or the future after today, are called pre-hodiernal and post-hodiernal respectively. Some languages also have a crastinal tense , a future tense referring specifically to tomorrow (found in some Bantu languages); or

880-587: Is a language that does not have a grammatical category of tense. Tenseless languages can and do refer to time , but they do so using lexical items such as adverbs or verbs, or by using combinations of aspect , mood , and words that establish time reference. Examples of tenseless languages are Burmese , Dyirbal , most varieties of Chinese , Malay (including Indonesian ), Thai , Maya (linguistic nomenclature: "Yukatek Maya"), Vietnamese and in some analyses Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) and Guaraní . The study of modern languages has been greatly influenced by

935-734: Is indicated by placing the pronoun nier ' them ' or a number after the noun. Nouns may be either free , or directly possessed . Directly possessed nouns are suffixed to indicate whom an item belongs to. For example: Possession may also be indicated by the use of possessive classifiers , separate words that occur before or after the noun and take possessive suffixes. These classifiers are: The possessive suffixes are as follows: -q -q "of mine" -mwam -mwam "of ours" (mine and others') -d -d "of ours" (yours and mine) -m -m "of yours" (singular) -mi -mi "of yours" (plural) -n -n "of his/hers/its" -r -r "of theirs" A verb may be transformed into

990-429: Is not related to the adjective tense , which comes from Latin tensus , the perfect passive participle of tendere , "stretch". In modern linguistic theory, tense is understood as a category that expresses ( grammaticalizes ) time reference; namely one which, using grammatical means, places a state or action in time. Nonetheless, in many descriptions of languages, particularly in traditional European grammar,

1045-408: Is used to express modality , which includes such properties as uncertainty, evidentiality , and obligation. Commonly encountered moods include the indicative , subjunctive , and conditional . Mood can be bound up with tense, aspect, or both, in particular verb forms. Hence, certain languages are sometimes analysed as having a single tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system, without separate manifestation of

1100-478: The Chinese languages , though they can possess a future and nonfuture system typical of Sino-Tibetan languages. In recent work Maria Bittner and Judith Tonhauser have described the different ways in which tenseless languages nonetheless mark time. On the other hand, some languages make finer tense distinctions, such as remote vs recent past, or near vs remote future. Tenses generally express time relative to

1155-626: The Indo-European family have developed systems either with two morphological tenses (present or "non-past", and past) or with three (present, past and future). The tenses often form part of entangled tense–aspect–mood conjugation systems. Additional tenses, tense–aspect combinations, etc. can be provided by compound constructions containing auxiliary verbs. The Germanic languages (which include English) have present (non-past) and past tenses formed morphologically, with future and other additional forms made using auxiliaries. In standard German ,

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1210-450: The historical present is a use of the present tense to refer to past events. The phenomenon of fake tense is common crosslinguistically as a means of marking counterfactuality in conditionals and wishes. Not all languages have tense: tenseless languages include Chinese and Dyirbal . Some languages have all three basic tenses (the past , present , and future ), while others have only two: some have past and nonpast tenses,

1265-726: The historical present it can talk about the past as well. These morphological tenses are marked either with a suffix ( walk(s) ~ walked ) or with ablaut ( sing(s) ~ sang ). In some contexts, particularly in English language teaching , various tense–aspect combinations are referred to loosely as tenses. Similarly, the term "future tense" is sometimes loosely applied to cases where modals such as will are used to talk about future points in time. Proto-Indo-European verbs had present, perfect ( stative ), imperfect and aorist forms – these can be considered as representing two tenses (present and past) with different aspects . Most languages in

1320-481: The moment of speaking . In some contexts, however, their meaning may be relativized to a point in the past or future which is established in the discourse (the moment being spoken about). This is called relative (as opposed to absolute ) tense. Some languages have different verb forms or constructions which manifest relative tense, such as pluperfect ("past-in-the-past") and " future-in-the-past ". Expressions of tense are often closely connected with expressions of

1375-438: The subject , such as person , number and gender . It is consequently not always possible to identify elements that mark any specific category, such as tense, separately from the others. Languages that do not have grammatical tense, such as most Sinitic languages , express time reference chiefly by lexical means – through adverbials , time phrases, and so on. (The same is done in tensed languages, to supplement or reinforce

1430-592: The French passé composé , which has an auxiliary verb together with the inflected past participle form of the main verb; and the Irish past tense , where the proclitic do (in various surface forms) appears in conjunction with the affixed or ablaut-modified past tense form of the main verb. As has already been mentioned, indications of tense are often bound up with indications of other verbal categories, such as aspect and mood . The conjugation patterns of verbs often also reflect agreement with categories pertaining to

1485-400: The Ske of older and younger speakers. Doltes , the extinct dialect of Hotwata village, is sometimes regarded as a Ske dialect, but appears to have been closer to Sa . There is no local tradition of writing in Ske, and until recently the language was virtually undocumented. However, linguist Kay Johnson has written a PhD thesis on the language, including a sketch grammar. Prior to her arrival,

1540-403: The action occurs in a recurrent temporal period of the day ("in the morning", "during the day", "at night", "until dawn" etc) or of the year ("in winter"). Some languages have cyclic tense systems. This is a form of temporal marking where tense is given relative to a reference point or reference span. In Burarra , for example, events that occurred earlier on the day of speaking are marked with

1595-452: The aspects implied by those terms. Latin is traditionally described as having six verb paradigms for tense (the Latin for "tense" being tempus , plural tempora ): Imperfect tense verbs represent a past process combined with so called imperfective aspect , that is, they often stand for an ongoing past action or state at a past point in time (see secondary present ) or represent habitual actions (see Latin tenses with modality ) (e.g. 'he

1650-419: The case of the verb 'be' (including its use as an auxiliary), also present tense. Persian , an Indo-Iranian language , has past and non-past forms, with additional aspectual distinctions. Future can be expressed using an auxiliary, but almost never in non-formal context. Colloquially the perfect suffix -e can be added to past tenses to indicate that an action is speculative or reported (e.g. "it seems that he

1705-562: The category of aspect ; sometimes what are traditionally called tenses (in languages such as Latin ) may in modern analysis be regarded as combinations of tense with aspect. Verbs are also often conjugated for mood , and since in many cases the three categories are not manifested separately, some languages may be described in terms of a combined tense–aspect–mood (TAM) system. The English noun tense comes from Old French tens "time" (spelled temps in modern French through deliberate archaization), from Latin tempus , "time". It

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1760-487: The compound past ( Perfekt ) has replaced the simple morphological past in most contexts. The Romance languages (descendants of Latin) have past, present and future morphological tenses, with additional aspectual distinction in the past. French is an example of a language where, as in German, the simple morphological perfective past ( passé simple ) has mostly given way to a compound form ( passé composé ) . Irish ,

1815-524: The first of these two elements is the aspect marker and the second element (the copula) is the common tense-mood marker. Hindi-Urdu has 3 grammatical aspectsː Habitual , Perfective , and Progressive ; and 5 grammatical moodsː Indicative , Presumptive , Subjunctive , Contrafactual , and Imperative . (Seeː Hindi verbs ) In the Slavic languages , verbs are intrinsically perfective or imperfective. In Russian and some other languages in

1870-468: The future relative to the time under consideration, as with the English " future-in-the-past ": (he said that) he would go . Relative tense forms are also sometimes analysed as combinations of tense with aspect: the perfect aspect in the anterior case, or the prospective aspect in the posterior case. Some languages, such as Nez perce or Cavineña also have periodic tense markers that encode that

1925-526: The future tense is formed by the shortened version of the present of the verb hteti (ще) and it just adds present tense forms of person suffixes: -m (I), -š (you), -ø (he,she,it), -me (we), -te (you, plural), -t (they). Finnish and Hungarian , both members of the Uralic language family, have morphological present (non-past) and past tenses. The Hungarian verb van ("to be") also has a future form. Turkish verbs conjugate for past, present and future, with

1980-500: The grammar of the Classical languages, since early grammarians, often monks, had no other reference point to describe their language. Latin terminology is often used to describe modern languages, sometimes with a change of meaning, as with the application of "perfect" to forms in English that do not necessarily have perfective meaning, or the words Imperfekt and Perfekt to German past tense forms that mostly lack any relationship to

2035-696: The group, perfective verbs have past and "future tenses", while imperfective verbs have past, present and "future", the imperfective "future" being a compound tense in most cases. The "future tense" of perfective verbs is formed in the same way as the present tense of imperfective verbs. However, in South Slavic languages , there may be a greater variety of forms – Bulgarian , for example, has present, past (both "imperfect" and "aorist") and "future tenses", for both perfective and imperfective verbs, as well as perfect forms made with an auxiliary (see Bulgarian verbs ). However it doesn't have real future tense, because

2090-459: The historical loss of an intervening vowel, for example in -kkas ' to be sweet ' (compare Sowa kakas ). Geminates contrast with single consonants word initially, e.g., sser ' red mat ' and ser ' lantern ' . Unlike neighbouring languages such as Apma , Ske permits a variety of voiced consonants to occur at the end of syllables, although when they occur at the end of an utterance they are often followed by an 'echo' of

2145-405: The indicative present conjugations in older forms of Hind-Urdu) by adding a future future suffix - gā that declines for gender and the number of the noun that the pronoun refers to. The forms of gā are derived from the perfective participle forms of the verb "to go," jāna . The conjugations of the indicative perfect past and the indicative imperfect past are derived from participles (just like

2200-481: The latter covering both present and future times (as in Arabic , Japanese , and, in some analyses, English ), whereas others such as Greenlandic , Quechua , and Nivkh have future and nonfuture . Some languages have four or more tenses, making finer distinctions either in the past (e.g. remote vs. recent past) or in the future (e.g. near vs. remote future). The six-tense language Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia has

2255-485: The main verb, or a multi-word construction , or both in combination. Inflection may involve the use of affixes , such as the -ed ending that marks the past tense of English regular verbs , but can also entail stem modifications, such as ablaut , as found as in the strong verbs in English and other Germanic languages, or reduplication . Multi-word tense constructions often involve auxiliary verbs or clitics . Examples which combine both types of tense marking include

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2310-569: The majority of houses destroyed. Ske language The Ske area comprises fourteen small villages centred on Baravet in south-central Pentecost, from Liavzendam (Levizendam) in the north to Hotwata in the south and extending inland to Vanliamit. Historically the language's area extended to parallel areas of the east coast, but this part of the island is now depopulated. Due to intermarriage between language areas, an increasing number of people in Ske-speaking villages now speak Bislama as

2365-449: The negative, is no longer the case). Luganda also has tenses meaning "so far" and "not yet". Some languages have special tense forms that are used to express relative tense . Tenses that refer to the past relative to the time under consideration are called anterior ; these include the pluperfect (for the past relative to a past time) and the future perfect (for the past relative to a future time). Similarly, posterior tenses refer to

2420-577: The only records of Ske were short vocabulary lists collected by David Walsh in the 1960s, Catriona Hyslop in 2001 and Andrew Gray in 2007. Ske notably drops unstressed vowels. This has resulted in a language rich in consonants, in contrast to related languages such as Raga . Due to the presence of consonant clusters within syllables and other phonological features not typical of the area's languages, speakers of neighbouring languages consider Ske difficult to speak and learn. Geminate consonants occur where two identical consonants have been brought together by

2475-505: The past tense formation in Slavic languages ) and hence they agree with the grammatical number and the gender of noun which the pronoun refers to and not the pronoun itself. The perfect past doubles as the perfective aspect participle and the imperfect past conjugations act as the copula to mark imperfect past when used with the aspectual participles. Hindi-Urdu has an overtly marked tense-aspect-mood system. Periphrastic Hindi-Urdu verb forms (aspectual verb forms) consist of two elements,

2530-581: The previous vowel. For example, skor /skɔr/ ' sago palm thatch ' is often pronounced [skɔrɔ] . Stress typically occurs on the final syllable of a word. Kay Johnson worked with the Ske community to develop the following orthography: Some older sources write /ᵑg/ as ⟨ngg⟩ or ⟨ḡ⟩ . Basic word order in Ske is subject–verb–object . Personal pronouns are distinguished by person and number . They are not distinguished by gender . The basic pronouns are: Nouns in Ske are generally not preceded by articles . Plurality

2585-479: The remote past, the recent past, the today past, the present, the today/near future and the remote future. Some languages, like the Amazonian Cubeo language , have a historical past tense, used for events perceived as historical. Tenses that refer specifically to "today" are called hodiernal tenses ; these can be either past or future. Apart from Kalaw Lagaw Ya, another language which features such tenses

2640-415: The result is still present (e.g. 'I have found it') or for present states resulting from a past event (e.g. 'I remember'). English has only two morphological tenses: the present (or non-past ), as in he goes , and the past (or preterite ), as in he went . The non-past usually references the present, but sometimes references the future (as in the bus leaves tomorrow ). In special uses such as

2695-511: The river from the main village, are a Churches of Christ church and kindergarten. Baravet is the hub of the Ske language community, and has a traditional identity distinct from that of other parts of Central Pentecost and South Pentecost. The term 'Baravet' is sometimes used to refer to the entire Ske cultural area. Baravet was severely damaged by Cyclone Harold in April 2020, with the nakamal and

2750-414: The same verb forms as events that happened in the far past, while events that happened yesterday (compared to the moment of speech) are marked with the same forms as events in the present. This can be thought of as a system where events are marked as prior or contemporaneous to points of reference on a timeline. Tense is normally indicated by the use of a particular verb form – either an inflected form of

2805-552: The term "tense" is applied to verb forms or constructions that express not merely position in time, but also additional properties of the state or action – particularly aspectual or modal properties. The category of aspect expresses how a state or action relates to time – whether it is seen as a complete event, an ongoing or repeated situation, etc. Many languages make a distinction between perfective aspect (denoting complete events) and imperfective aspect (denoting ongoing or repeated situations); some also have other aspects, such as

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2860-607: The three categories. The term tense , then, particularly in less formal contexts, is sometimes used to denote any combination of tense proper, aspect, and mood. As regards English , there are many verb forms and constructions which combine time reference with continuous and/or perfect aspect, and with indicative, subjunctive or conditional mood. Particularly in some English language teaching materials, some or all of these forms can be referred to simply as tenses (see below ). Particular tense forms need not always carry their basic time-referential meaning in every case. For instance,

2915-399: The time information conveyed by the choice of tense.) Time information is also sometimes conveyed as a secondary feature by markers of other categories, as with the aspect markers 了 le and 過 guò , which in most cases place an action in past time. However, much time information is conveyed implicitly by context – it is therefore not always necessary, when translating from a tensed to

2970-503: Was doing", "they say that he was doing"). A similar feature is found in Turkish. (For details, see Persian verbs .) Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), an Indo-Aryan language , has indicative perfect past and indicative future forms, while the indicative present and indicative imperfect past conjugations exist only for the verb honā (to be). The indicative future is constructed using the future subjunctive conjugations (which used to be

3025-754: Was eating', 'he used to eat'). The perfect tense combines the meanings of a simple past ('he ate') with that of an English perfect tense ('he has eaten'), which in ancient Greek are two different tenses (aorist and perfect). The pluperfect, the perfect and the future perfect may also realise relative tenses , standing for events that are past at the time of another event (see secondary past ): for instance, mortuus erat , mortuus est , mortuus erit may stand for respectively ' he had died ', ' he has died ' and ' he will have died '. Latin verbs are inflected for tense and aspect together with mood (indicative, subjunctive, infinitive, and imperative) and voice (active or passive). Most verbs can be built by selecting

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