Bardenas (founded in 1959, until 2008 its name was Bardena del Caudillo ), is a settlement in the municipality of Ejea de los Caballeros , in the province of Zaragoza .
105-536: It was founded on April 8, 1959, as Bardena del Caudillo , due to its foundation during Franco's dictatorship and as a plan of the Instituto Nacional de Colonización (INC); at first it was intended to be baptized as El Saso in homage to the land near the area. At the same time, other colonization villages such as El Bayo or Santa Anastasia were also inaugurated, and the Bardenas Canal and
210-403: A Castilian -centric unitary national identity by repressing Spain's cultural diversity. Bullfighting and flamenco were promoted as national traditions, while those traditions not considered Spanish were suppressed. Franco's view of Spanish tradition was somewhat artificial and arbitrary: while some regional traditions were suppressed, Flamenco, an Andalusian tradition, was considered part of
315-514: A de jure kingdom again, but defined Franco as the head of state for life with the power to choose the person to become King of Spain and his successor. Reforms were implemented in the 1950s and Spain abandoned autarky, reassigned authority from the Falangist movement , which had been prone to isolationism, to a new breed of economists, the technocrats of Opus Dei . This led to massive economic growth, second only to Japan , that lasted until
420-410: A clergy that was bitter because of the violent anti-clericalism and the unacceptable level of secularisation that Spanish society had reached during the republican years" and the law of 1939 made the priests investigators of peoples' ideological and political pasts. The authorities encouraged denunciations in the workplace. For example, Barcelona's city hall obliged all government functionaries to "tell
525-480: A decline in the respect towards international law in the United States from our highest government officials to the person on the street because of the misunderstood belief that the laws are in practice not enforceable. Lawal distinguishes between subjective and objective designations. Subjective designation can also exist on a national level, according to the interests and values of the designating nation. If
630-589: A fervent Catholic and a staunch defender of Roman Catholicism, the declared state religion . The regime favoured very conservative Roman Catholicism and it reversed the secularisation process that had taken place under the Republic. According to historian Julian Casanova , "the symbiosis of religion, fatherland and Caudillo" saw the Church assume great political responsibilities, "a hegemony and monopoly beyond its wildest dreams" and it played "a central role in policing
735-495: A form described as "fascistized dictatorship", or "semi-fascist regime", showing clear influence of fascism in fields such as labor relations , the autarkic economic policy , aesthetics , and the single-party system . As time went on, the regime opened up and became closer to developmental dictatorships, although it always preserved residual fascist trappings. During the Second World War , Spain did not join
840-434: A larger, national identity. All cultural activities were subject to censorship and many were forbidden entirely, often in an erratic manner. This cultural policy relaxed over time, most notably in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Franco was reluctant to enact any form of administrative and legislative decentralisation and kept a fully centralised form of government with a similar administrative structure to that established by
945-506: A long-lasting influence in the catholic universities of Chile. The Guildists, presenting themselves as apolitical, were highly critical of perceived detrimental ideological influences in the Church , corporations (e.g. trade unions) and the Christian Democratic Party . Already in the first days after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état Guzmán became advisor and speechwriter of dictator Augusto Pinochet . While writing
1050-499: A monarchy through the Ley de Sucesión en la Jefatura del Estado act, but did not designate a monarch. He had no particular desire for a king because of his strained relations with the legitimist heir to the Crown, Juan of Bourbon. Therefore, he left the throne vacant with himself as regent and set the basis for his succession. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within
1155-451: A nation as a pariah state, nor is there any single accepted authority for doing so. Some criteria are proposed in the definitions offered in the previous section. For example, Harkavy and Marks make reference in their definitions to the international behavior of a nation in order to qualify it for pariahood. Marks goes one step further and includes the question of nuclear weapons in his criteria, while Weiss adds "a state’s defiant existence in
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#17327659137531260-560: A pariah state is "A state lacking any significant soft power ." Similarly, The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations defines the pariah states as "international States/actors which, by virtue of their political systems, ideological postures, leadership or general behavior, suffer from diplomatic isolation and widespread global moral opprobrium." This definition, as the previous one, does not indicate what kind of political system, ideological posture, leadership or general behavior,
1365-484: A pariah state, and Geldenhuys argues that major world powers by definition cannot be pariah states because they cannot be isolated or harmed politically or economically, or brought into compliance with international norms by pariah designations, whether by individuals or international governing bodies. Mary Ellen O'Connell , a professor of international law at the University of Notre Dame , explains that there has been
1470-578: A pariah state. Both declarations were based on both the United States's leading violation of international laws and results from Gallup polls showing that only 10 percent of people around the world supported the Iraq War and that 24 percent of people in the world believed the United States represented the greatest threat to world peace. Such poll results are not listed among objective criteria advanced by academic sources, international authorities or NGOs, or any governing bodies as criteria for designation as
1575-606: A public swimming pool and a grass soccer field. On May 5, 2008, as was previously done in other Spanish towns, the town was renamed Bardenas by decision of the Ejea de los Caballeros Town Council and in order to sever its relationship with the Franco dictatorship. Its name derives from the Aragonese word pardina > bardina > bardena , construction or fenced farmland. Population of Bardenas from 2000 to 2014. On May 15,
1680-622: A record of human rights violations. To these four criteria, Geldenhuys adds another two: 5) nations that promote radical ideologies at home or even abroad (clarified as "exporting revolution"), and 6) nations that commit acts of military aggression abroad. In addition to these six categories of state conduct that can result in objective designation as a pariah state, Geldenhuys suggests a seventh category that might gain international consensus: nations that are involved in international drug trafficking. According to Lawal, international law can serve as objective criteria. For example, nations who violate
1785-476: A scholar of Spain notes that "scarcely any of the serious historians and analysts of Franco consider the generalissimo to be a core fascist". According to historian Walter Laqueur "during the Civil War, Spanish fascists were forced to subordinate their activities to the nationalist cause. At the helm were military leaders such as General Francisco Franco, who were conservatives in all essential respects. When
1890-496: A senior government level, especially before the late 1940s, there were higher concentrations of monarchists, military officials and other traditional conservative factions at those levels. However, the Falange remained the sole party. The Francoists took control of Spain through a comprehensive and methodical war of attrition ( guerra de desgaste ) which involved the imprisonment and executions of Spaniards found guilty of supporting
1995-995: A specific variant of Fascism marked by the preponderance of the Catholic Church , the Armed Forces and Traditionalism. While the regime evolved along with its protracted history, its primitive essence remained, underpinned by the legal concentration of all powers into a single person, Francisco Franco, " Caudillo of Spain by the Grace of God", embodying national sovereignty and "only responsible before God and History". The consistent points in Francoism included above all authoritarianism , anti-Communism , Spanish nationalism , national Catholicism , monarchism , militarism , national conservatism , anti-Masonry , anti-Catalanism , pan-Hispanism , and anti-liberalism —some authors also include integralism . Stanley Payne ,
2100-535: A strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the Second World War . Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Franco's rule. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria . Despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. When
2205-446: Is ascribed to the pariah state by the other nations. The second type of definitions is most simply exemplified by Weiss's definition, according to which pariah states are "states that violate international norms. " Similarly, Harkavy offers, "A Pariah State is one whose conduct is considered to be out of line with international norms of behavior. " Geldenhuys gives a more detailed definition of that type: "A pariah (or outcast) country
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#17327659137532310-520: Is one whose domestic or international behaviour seriously offends the world community or at least a significant group of states. " Marks's definition elaborates more: a pariah state is "a state with provocative policies or expansionary territorial ambitions , measures of the absence of diplomatic relations with neighboring states or the situational harm posed to other states if the state in question acquired nuclear weapons ." As of August 2014, no internationally accepted criteria exist for designating
2415-486: Is that pariah states tend to develop a siege mentality . Similar to the "push effect" (described above regarding sanctions against nations developing nuclear arms ), this siege mentality can motivate pariah states to develop costly and ambitious arms programs. Finally, pariah states tend to develop resentments against the established world order. They may seek to subvert the international status quo. These characteristics are presented as generalizations, and not intended by
2520-418: Is that, although they are not necessarily small, pariah states cannot be "regarded as a major power in world terms." Certainly there are individuals who disagree with this second characteristic, such as Noam Chomsky (cited above) and author-journalist Robert Parry , each of whom has applied his own personal criteria to describe the United States as a pariah state. The third characteristic noted by Geldenhuys
2625-474: The Guardia Civil , a military police for civilians, which functioned as a chief means of social control. Larger cities, and capitals, were mostly under the heavily armed Policía Armada , commonly called grises due to their grey uniforms. Franco was also the focus of a personality cult , which taught that he had been sent by Divine Providence to save the country from chaos and poverty. Members of
2730-616: The Allied landings in North Africa and the German occupation of France bringing hostilities closer than ever to Spain's border, Franco ordered a partial mobilization, bringing the army to over 750,000 men. The Air Force and Navy also grew in numbers and in budgets to 35,000 airmen and 25,000 sailors by 1945, although for fiscal reasons Franco had to restrain attempts by both services to undertake dramatic expansions. The army maintained
2835-537: The Axis powers (its supporters from the civil war , Italy and Germany ). Nevertheless, Spain supported them in various ways throughout most of the war while maintaining its neutrality as an official policy of "non-belligerence". Because of this, Spain was isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade after World War II, while its autarkic economy, still trying to recover from the civil war , suffered from chronic depression. The 1947 Law of Succession made Spain
2940-549: The Basque Country fared much better than others such as Extremadura , Galicia or Andalusia . Franco eliminated the autonomy granted by the Second Spanish Republic to the regions and abolished the centuries-old fiscal privileges and autonomy (the fueros ) in two of the three Basque provinces: Guipuzcoa and Biscay , which were officially classified as "traitor regions". The fueros were kept in
3045-582: The Chicago Boys and writings such as The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism . In 1975 Pinochet and his wife Lucía Hiriart attended the funeral of Francisco Franco. When Pinochet died in 2006 supporters of late Francisco Franco paid homage in Spain. Antonio Tejero , who led the failed coup of 1981 , attended a memorial service in Madrid. For nearly twenty years after the war, Francoist Spain presented
3150-704: The Communist Party of Spain (PCE) went underground. University students seeking democracy revolted in the late 1960s and early 1970s, which was repressed by the grises . The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) went into exile and in 1959 the armed separatist group ETA was created to wage a low-intensity war against Franco. Like others at the time, Franco evinced a concern about a possible Masonic and Judaic conspiracy against his regime. Franco continued to personally sign all death warrants until just months before he died despite international campaigns requesting him to desist. Franco's Spanish nationalism promoted
3255-535: The Constitution of Chile of 1980 Jaime Guzmán studied the institutionalization of Francoism in Spain with the aim of preventing undesired reforms in future as it happened in Spain with the post-Franco constitution of 1977 . Josemaría Escrivá , the founder of Opus Dei , visited Chile 1974 after which Opus Dei begun to spread in the country. Opus Dei helped establish the University of the Andes in 1989. Both
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3360-737: The French protectorate in Morocco became independent in 1956, Spain surrendered its Spanish protectorate in Morocco to Mohammed V , retaining only a few exclaves, the Plazas de soberanía . The year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War (known as the "Forgotten War" in Spain). Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, did Morocco take control of all of
3465-519: The House of Bourbon and General Miguel Primo de Rivera . These structures were modelled after the centralised French state. As a result of this type of governance, government attention and initiatives were irregular and often depended more on the goodwill of government representatives than on regional needs. Thus inequalities in schooling, health care or transport facilities among regions were patent: historically affluent regions like Madrid , Catalonia or
3570-652: The Ministry of Education . He held the post for 12 years, during which he finished the purging of the ministry begun by the Commission of Culture and Teaching headed by José María Pemán . Pemán led the Catholicizing state-sponsored schools and allocating generous funding to the Church's schools. Romualdo de Toledo , head of the National Service of Primary Education, was a traditionalist who described
3675-561: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty are often sanctioned for their actions. Such sanctions can include designation as a pariah state, as has been the approach used by the United States. However, international law can fail in this regard, as under the current international system, most nation states recognize their own legal supremacy over the laws of any international governing body. Thus, according to Lawal, consensus under international law can be problematic. In
3780-472: The Opus Dei ensured professorships were offered only to the most faithful. The orphaned children of "Reds" were taught in orphanages run by priests and nuns that "their parents had committed great sins that they could help expiate, for which many were incited to serve the Church". Francoism professed a strong devotion to militarism, hypermasculinity and the traditional role of women in society. A woman
3885-605: The Spanish Civil War with the title Caudillo . After his death in 1975 due to heart failure, Spain transitioned into a democracy . During Franco's rule, Spain was officially known as the Spanish State ( Estado Español ). The nature of the regime evolved and changed during its existence. Months after the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936, Franco emerged as the dominant rebel military leader and
3990-701: The United Nations ) or perhaps a consensus among certain nations may govern the meaning or use of the term. The word "pariah" derives from Paraiyar , a large indigenous tribal group of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Under the Indian caste system, the Paraiyar were members of the lowest caste, which were called the "outcastes". Since its first recorded use in English in 1613, cultures worldwide have accepted
4095-508: The Yesa Reservoir were built. During the first months, several families settled in the town, reaching 15 by mid-August. In 1967 the number of settlers increased to 154, mostly from Ejea de los Caballeros, Alcalá de Moncayo , Tranquera, Rivas and Biota . Over the years, Bardenas became a village where to develop a life with a total of 220 houses built. It also has a nursery school, social center, church and parish house, as well as
4200-580: The compulsory national educational system and the development of modern mass media, both controlled by the state and exclusively in Spanish, reduced the competency of speakers of Basque, Catalan and Galician. Franco's regime often used religion as a means to increase its popularity throughout the Catholic world, especially after the Second World War. Franco himself was increasingly portrayed as
4305-727: The 1960s and 1970s these restrictions were somewhat relaxed. However, from 1941 until well into the Spanish transition to democracy , the Women's Protection Board confined ten of thousands of girls and young women deemed 'fallen or at risk of falling', even without having committed any crime, in centers run by Catholic religious orders where they were routinely brutalized. They could be admitted to these centers starting at age 16 through police raids, for "immoral behavior," arbitrary reports from family members and individuals ("guardians of morals"), requests from civil and religious authorities, or at
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4410-549: The Catholic Church, which traditionally supported the social subordination of women, had preeminence in all aspects of public and private life in Spain. The Catholic Church had a central role in upholding the traditional role of the family and women's place in it. Civil marriage had also been introduced in the country during the Republic, so the Church immediately asked the new Franco regime to restore its control of family and marriage laws. All Spanish women were required by
4515-532: The Europe-wide post-war economic normality centred on mass consumption and consensus, in contrast to the concurrent reality of the Soviet bloc". On 26 July 1947, Spain was declared a kingdom, but no monarch was designated until in 1969 Franco established Juan Carlos of Bourbon as his official heir-apparent. Franco was to be succeeded by Luis Carrero Blanco as Prime Minister with the intention of continuing
4620-535: The Falange was declared the sole legally sanctioned political party in Spain and it asserted itself as the main component of the National Movement. In a state of emergency -like status, Franco ruled with, on paper, more power than any Spanish leader before or since. He was not even required to consult his cabinet for most legislation. According to historian Stanley G. Payne , Franco had more day-to-day power than Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin possessed at
4725-581: The Franco regime recognition until it developed a more representative government. The Falange Española de las JONS , a fascist party formed during the Republic, soon transformed itself into the framework of reference in the National Movement. In April 1937, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx and of the Councils of National Syndicalist Offensive)
4830-578: The Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination by the Basque separatist group ETA . With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain . He initiated the country's subsequent transition to democracy , ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament and autonomous devolved governments. After Franco's victory in 1939,
4935-668: The Iberian Peninsula from the Islamic Moors . Falangist founder, Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, had a more tolerant position than the national socialists in Germany. This was influenced by the small size of the Jewish community in Spain at the time that did not favor the development of strong antisemitism. Primo de Rivera saw the solution to the "Jewish problem" in Spain as simple: the conversion of Jews to Catholicism. At
5040-571: The Law of Succession). In 1973, due to old age and to lessen his burdens in governing Spain he resigned as Prime Minister and named Navy Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco to the said post, but Franco remained as the Chief of State, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Jefe del Movimiento (Chief of the Movement). However, Carrero Blanco was assassinated in the same year and Carlos Arias Navarro became
5145-585: The Movement. At the same time, Franco wore the uniform of a captain-general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Royal Palace of El Pardo , appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a canopy and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were Jefe del Estado (Head of State) and Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles (Generalissimo of
5250-532: The Republic be relatively safe from imprisonment or unemployment. After the death of Franco, the price of the peaceful transition to democracy would be silence and "the tacit agreement to forget the past", which was given legal status by the 1977 Pact of forgetting . Civil marriages that had taken place in the Republic were declared null and void unless they had been validated by the Church, along with divorces. Divorce , contraception and abortions were forbidden. Children had to be given Christian names. Franco
5355-507: The Republic had granted them for the first time in the history of Spain. The former policy of promoting Spanish as the only official language of the state and education was resumed, even though millions of the country's citizens spoke other languages. The legal usage of languages other than Spanish was forbidden: all government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were to be drawn up exclusively in Spanish and any written in other languages were deemed null and void. The use of any other language
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#17327659137535460-471: The Spanish Armies), he was referred to as Caudillo of Spain , by the Grace of God . Por la Gracia de Dios is a technical, legal formulation which states sovereign dignity in absolute monarchies and had been used only by monarchs before. The long-delayed selection of Juan Carlos of Bourbon as Franco's official successor in 1969 was an unpleasant surprise for many interested parties as Juan Carlos
5565-785: The United States' problem with Cuba was geographical more than ideological, as Cuba was no further from the United States on the political spectrum than the Soviet Union was at the time, but the Soviets had attempted to establish nuclear missile launch facilities in Cuba , within 99 miles (159 km) of the United States coastline. Lawal has summarized four primary categories often used for qualification as pariah states: 1) nations that possess or use weapons of mass destruction in contravention of existing treaties, 2) nations that support terrorism, 3) nations lacking democracy, and 4) nations with
5670-490: The University of the Andes and the political party Independent Democratic Union , founded in 1983 by Guzmán, have a Francoist heritage. In the 1970s Pinochet's dictatorship organized ritualized acts reminiscent of Francoist Spain, notably Acto de Chacarillas . After 1980 Francoist influence gave way to economic liberalism . Even Guzmán, once clearly influenced by Francoist corporatism , adopted economic liberalism from
5775-443: The author's field of study. These definitions are here grouped into two categories: definitions focusing on the lack (or disadvantage ) the pariah state objectively suffers from, and definitions focusing on the political justification - given by other nations - for why that pariah state "deserves" their extraordinary attitude towards it. The first type of definitions is well exemplified by Bellany's definition, according to which
5880-437: The base of the construction of the "communist menace" as a modern-day Eastern plague". The official position was therefore that the wartime Republic was simply a proto-Stalinist monolith, its leaders intent on creating a Spanish Soviet satellite. Many Spanish children grew up believing the war was fought against foreigners and the painter Julian Grau Santos has said "it was instilled in me and I always believed that Spain had won
5985-442: The case of nuclear arms development, international isolation can have a paradoxical "push effect" on a pariah state, motivating accelerated development of nuclear weapons. As of 2012, there was no provision in international law for pariah status. Geldenhuys has identified four common characteristics shared by many pariah states that are unrelated to any actions of international deviance that might have qualified them as pariahs under
6090-402: The civil war ended, Franco was so deeply entrenched that the Falange stood no chance; in this strongly authoritarian regime, there was no room for political opposition. The Falange became junior partners in the government and, as such, they had to accept responsibility for the regime's policy without being able to shape it substantially". The United Nations Security Council voted in 1946 to deny
6195-462: The conflict as a crusade against Bolshevism in defence of Christian civilization. In Francoist narrative, authoritarianism had defeated anarchy and overseen the elimination of "agitators", those "without God" and the " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy ". Since Franco had relied on thousands of North African soldiers, anti-Islamic sentiment "was played down but the centuries-old myth of the Moorish threat lay at
6300-404: The country's citizens". The Law of Political Responsibility of February 1939 turned the Church into an extralegal body of investigation as parishes were granted policing powers equal to those of local government officials and leaders of the Falange. Some official jobs required a "good behaviour" statement by a priest. According to historian Julian Casanova, "the reports that have survived reveal
6405-540: The country's new Prime Minister. During the first year of peace, Franco dramatically reduced the size of the Spanish Army —from almost one million at the end of the Civil War to 250,000 in early 1940, with most soldiers two-year conscripts. Concerns about the international situation, Spain's possible entry into World War II , and threats of invasion led him to undo some of these reductions. In November 1942, with
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#17327659137536510-636: The designating authorities, are the subject of much disagreement. For example, the Nigerian scholar Olawale Lawal has stated: There are so many open questions on the issue of Pariah State. For instance who determines a Pariah State and how a nation becomes a Pariah State... This becomes more profound when one realizes that a nation that is an outcast in one region, has diplomatic and friendly relations with others. By some criteria, nations can be considered pariahs within their own neighborhood of surrounding states. By other criteria, an international body (such as
6615-554: The designating nation is powerful enough, the designation of pariah statehood can become objective based on the amount of pressure the designating state can apply to gain international consensus . Such was the case, according to Lawal, when the United States used its strength within the Western Bloc to impose pariah status on Fidel Castro 's Cuba instead of acting unilaterally through foreign policy , with no objective need to impose international pariah status. Lawal explains that
6720-552: The end of hostilities in 1945, in the face of which Franco's strong anti-communism naturally tilted its regime to ally with the United States. Independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. Nevertheless, once decrees for economic stabilisation were put forth by the late 1950s, the way was opened for massive foreign investment—"a watershed in post-war economic, social and ideological normalisation leading to extraordinarily rapid economic growth "—that marked Spain's "participation in
6825-600: The end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regime's own figures there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons and some 500,000 had fled into exile . Large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies . Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen . It has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in
6930-541: The face of international non-recognition.". However, Bellany's sole criterion is a lack of soft power , while the Penguin Dictionary of International Relations requires that the pariah states also "suffer from diplomatic isolation and widespread global moral opprobrium". Left-wing political commentator and activist Noam Chomsky declared in 2003 and again in 2014 that the United States had become
7035-654: The festivities in honor of Isidore the Laborer are celebrated, although the main festivities are held from the first Wednesday of August until Sunday of that week. These festivities are in honor of St. Francis of Assisi . Francoist Spain Francoist Spain ( Spanish : España franquista ), also known as the Francoist dictatorship ( dictadura franquista ), was the period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after
7140-410: The first years of the dictatorship from 1940 to 1942 as a result of political persecution, hunger and disease related to the conflict. Spain's strong ties with the Axis resulted in its international ostracism in the early years following World War II as Spain was not a founding member of the United Nations and did not become a member until 1955. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed
7245-428: The former Spanish territories in the Sahara. In 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spain's colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence and the next year ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco . Under Franco, Spain also pursued a campaign to gain sovereignty of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar and closed its border in 1969. The border would not be fully reopened until 1985. Initially
7350-407: The government television network, debuted in 1956. The Roman Catholic Church had its own media outlets, including the Ya newspaper and the Cadena COPE radio network. Other pro-government media included Cadena SER , ABC , La Vanguardia Española , El Correo and El Diario Vasco . Notable independent media outlets included humour magazine La Codorniz . The 1966 Press Law dropped
7455-504: The government was not responsible to it: ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco alone as the "Chief" of state and government. The Ley del Referendum Nacional (Law of the National Referendum), passed in 1945 approved for all "fundamental laws" to be approved by a popular referendum, in which only the heads of families could vote. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through local municipal elections while mayors were appointed by
7560-707: The government. It was thus one of the most centralised countries in Europe and certainly the most centralised in Western Europe following the fall of the Portuguese Estado Novo in the Carnation Revolution . The referendum law was used twice during Franco's rule—in 1947, when a referendum revived the Spanish monarchy with Franco as de facto regent for life with sole right to appoint his successor; and in 1966, another referendum
7665-496: The latter having inner backing from within the regime. During the Cold War , Juan José Linz , either accused of whitewashing the regime or being praised as the elaborator of "the first scientific conceptualization" of the regime, famously early characterized it as an "authoritarian regime with limited pluralism". The Francoist regime has been described by other scholars as a " Fascismo a la española " ("Spanish-style Fascism") or as
7770-471: The mid-1970s, known as the " Spanish miracle ". During the 1950s the regime also changed from being openly totalitarian and using severe repression to an authoritarian system with limited pluralism and economic freedom . As a result of these reforms, Spain was allowed to join the United Nations in 1955 and during the Cold War Franco was one of Europe's foremost anti-communist figures: his regime
7875-455: The model school as "the monastery founded by Saint Benedict ". The clergy in charge of the education system sanctioned and sacked thousands of teachers of the progressive left and divided Spain's schools up among the families of falangists, loyalist soldiers and Catholic families. In some provinces, like Lugo , practically all the teachers were dismissed. This process also affected tertiary education, as Ibáñez Martín, Catholic propagandists and
7980-603: The oppressed ranged from Catholic trade unions to communist and anarchist organisations to liberal democrats and Catalan or Basque separatists. The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) trade unions were outlawed and replaced in 1940 by the corporatist Sindicato Vertical . The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) party were banned in 1939 while
8085-688: The passing of the organic law of 1942 and the Ley Constitutiva de las Cortes (Constituent Law of the Cortes) the same year, which saw the grand opening of the Cortes Españolas on 18 July 1942. The Organic Law made the executive government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, while defining the Cortes as a purely advisory body elected by neither direct nor universal suffrage. The Cortes had no power over government spending, and
8190-560: The past few centuries, the authority to designate a nation as an outcast, or pariah state, was relatively clear, often resting with religious authorities (e.g., "the Ottoman Empire for example was regarded as an outcast by European states" from the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 until the nineteenth century on a "religious basis."). In more recent times, however, the criteria for and attached implications of pariah statehood, as well as
8295-685: The period prior to 1980. Traditionalist historian Jaime Eyzaguirre was an admirer of Francoist Spain. The lawyer Jaime Guzmán, once a student of Eyzaguirre, helped establishing the Francoist-influenced Guildist Movement at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile in the 1960s. This has been interpreted as a reaction inspired in Francoist corporatism against elements of the Chilean university reform . The movement rapidly gained
8400-475: The prior censorship regime and allowed media outlets to select their own directors, although criticism was still a crime. Pariah state A pariah state (also called an international pariah or a global pariah ) is a nation considered to be an outcast in the international community . A pariah state may face international isolation , sanctions or even an invasion by nations who find its policies, actions, or even its very existence unacceptable. Until
8505-455: The proper authorities who the leftists are in your department and everything you know about their activities". A law passed in 1939 institutionalised the purging of public offices. The poet Carlos Barral recorded that in his family "any allusion to republican relatives was scrupulously avoided; everyone took part in the enthusiasm for the new era and wrapped themselves in the folds of religiosity". Only through silence could people associated with
8610-469: The regime embraced the definition of a " totalitarian state " or the nacional-sindicalista label. Following the defeat of Fascism in World War II, "organic democracy" [ es ] was the new moniker the regime adopted for itself, yet it only sounded credible to staunch believers. Other later soft definitions include "authoritarian regime" or "constituent or developmental dictatorship",
8715-456: The request of the women themselves or their parents. In practice, girls as young as 11 were forcibly interned. Young women and girls were routinely trafficked to men and forced to bear children, only to have their babies stolen immediately afterwards. Francoism had an influence abroad in Chile, where it found clear expressions in the military dictatorship era (1973–1990), in particular in
8820-420: The respective heights of their power. Payne noted that Hitler and Stalin at least maintained rubber-stamp parliaments, while Franco dispensed with even that formality in the early years of his rule. According to Payne, the lack of even a rubber-stamp parliament made Franco's government "the most purely arbitrary in the world." The 100-member National Council of the Movement served as a makeshift legislature until
8925-470: The restoration of a Bourbon) nor the republican "old shirts" (original Falangists). Franco ignored the claim to the throne of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona , son of the last king, Alfonso XIII , who designated himself as his heir; Franco found him too liberal. Instead, in 1969, Franco selected the young Juan Carlos of Bourbon , son of Infante Juan, as his officially designated heir to the throne, shortly after his 30th birthday (the minimum age required under
9030-428: The role of women to family care and motherhood. Immediately after the civil war most progressive laws passed by the Republic aimed at equality between the sexes were nullified. Women could not become judges or testify in a trial. Their affairs and economic lives had to be managed by their fathers and husbands. Until the 1970s, a woman could not open a bank account without having it co-signed by her father or husband. In
9135-499: The state to serve for six months in the Women's Section ( Sección Femenina ), the female branch of the Falange state party, to undergo training for motherhood along with political indoctrination. Francoism professed a devotion to the traditional role of a woman in society; that is, being a loving daughter and sister to her parents and brothers, being a faithful wife to her husband, and residing with her family. Official propaganda confined
9240-453: The term "pariah" to mean "outcast". A pariah state, defined in its simplest terms, is an outcast state. This is not a new term in the lexicon of International Relations , nor is it a new historical concept. What is new, however, is what Lawal refers to as "the basis for Pariahood appellation." Other definitions have been advanced that expand this basis (see next section below), or perhaps add more academic nuance, which may vary by author or
9345-558: The term "party" was generally avoided, especially after World War II, when it was commonly referred to as the "National Movement" or just as "the Movement". The main point of those scholars that tend to consider the Spanish State to be authoritarian rather than fascist is that the FET-JONS were relatively heterogeneous rather than being an ideological monolith. After World War II , the Falange opposed free capital markets, but
9450-852: The territories occupied by the Nationalists . In April 1937, Franco assumed control of the Falange Española de las JONS , then led by Manuel Hedilla , who had succeeded José Antonio Primo de Rivera , who was executed in November 1936 by the Republican government . He merged it with the Carlist Comunión Tradicionalista to form the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS . The sole legal party of Francoist Spain, it
9555-606: The third Basque province, Alava , and also in Navarre , a former kingdom during the Middle Ages and the cradle of the Carlists, possibly due to the region's support during the Civil War. Franco also used language politics in an attempt to establish national homogeneity. Despite Franco himself being Galician, the government revoked the official statute and recognition for the Basque , Galician and Catalan languages that
9660-502: The ultimately prevailing technocrats , some of whom were linked with Opus Dei , eschewed syndicalist economics and favoured increased competition as a means of achieving rapid economic growth and integration with wider Europe. The Spanish State was authoritarian: Non-government trade unions and all political opponents across the political spectrum were either suppressed or controlled by all means, including police repression. Most country towns and rural areas were patrolled by pairs of
9765-513: The values promoted by the Republic: regional autonomy, liberal or social democracy, free elections, socialist leanings, and women's rights, including the vote. The right-wing considered these "enemy elements" to comprise an "anti-Spain" that was the product of Bolsheviks and a " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy ". The latter allegation pre-dated Falangism, having evolved after the Reconquista of
9870-410: The various criteria. The first is that pariah states tend to lack strong identity as a nation. Geldenhuys cites Iraq as an example. Iraq is a relatively young nation state with "artificial borders." Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath party denied that Iraqis formed a nation. Rather, they maintained that Iraqis were part of a larger Arab nation ( Iraqi Kurds are not Arabs. ). The second characteristic
9975-607: The war against foreign enemies of our historic greatness". About 6,832 Catholic clergy were murdered by the Republicans. Collectively, they are known as the martyrs of the Spanish Civil War . Under the 1938 Press Law, all newspapers were put under prior censorship and were forced to include any articles the government desired. Chief editors were nominated by the government and all journalists were required to be registered. All liberal, republican and left-wing media were prohibited. The Delegación Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda
10080-701: Was assisted by the Western powers , particularly the United States. Franco died in 1975 at the age of 82. He restored the monarchy before his death and made his successor King Juan Carlos I , who would lead the Spanish transition to democracy . On 1 October 1936, Franco was formally recognised as Caudillo of Spain —the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Führer —by the Junta de Defensa Nacional ( National Defense Junta ), which governed
10185-618: Was created from the absorption of the Comunión Tradicionalista (Traditionalist Communion) by the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista , which itself was the result of an earlier absorption of the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista by José Antonio Primo de Rivera's Falange Española . This party, often referred to as Falange, became the sole legal party during Franco's regime, but
10290-417: Was established as a network of government media, including daily newspapers Diario Arriba and Pueblo . The EFE and Pyresa government news agencies were created in 1939 and 1945. The Radio Nacional de España state radio had the exclusive right to transmit news bulletins, which all broadcasters were required to air. The No-Do were 10-minute newsreels shown at all cinemas. The Televisión Española ,
10395-402: Was forbidden in schools, advertising, religious ceremonies and on-road and shop signs. Publications in other languages were generally forbidden, though citizens continued to use them privately. During the late 1960s, these policies became more lenient yet non-Castilian languages continued to be discouraged and did not receive official status or legal recognition. Additionally, the popularisation of
10500-403: Was held to approve a new " organic law ", or constitution, supposedly limiting and clearly defining Franco's powers as well as formally creating the modern office of Prime Minister of Spain . By delaying the issue of republic versus monarchy for his 36-year dictatorship and by refusing to take up the throne himself in 1947, Franco sought to antagonise neither the monarchical Carlists (who preferred
10605-614: Was made a member of the Supreme Order of Christ by Pope Pius XII whilst Spain itself was consecrated to the Sacred Heart . The Catholic Church's ties with the Franco dictatorship gave it control over the country's schools and crucifixes were once again placed in schoolrooms. After the war, Franco chose José Ibáñez Martín , a member of the National Catholic Association of Propagandists, to lead
10710-584: Was proclaimed head of state on 1 October 1936, ruling a dictatorship over the territory controlled by the Nationalist faction . The 1937 Unification Decree , which merged all parties supporting the rebel side, led to Nationalist Spain becoming a single-party regime under the FET y de las JONS . The end of the war in 1939 brought the extension of the Franco rule to the whole country and the exile of Republican institutions . The Francoist dictatorship originally took
10815-468: Was the main component of the Movimiento Nacional (National Movement). The Falangists were concentrated at local government and grassroot level, entrusted with harnessing the Civil War's momentum of mass mobilisation through their auxiliaries and trade unions by collecting denunciations of enemy residents and recruiting workers into the trade unions. While there were prominent Falangists at
10920-573: Was the rightful heir for neither the Carlists nor the Legitimists. Women had first been granted the right to vote in Spain during the Second Republic. Under the new constitution they had gained full legal status and equal access to the labor market, abortion had been legalized and the crime of adultery abolished. The Franco regime's embrace of National Catholicism ( nacionalcatolicismo ) as part of its ideological identity meant that
11025-500: Was to be loving to her parents and brothers, faithful to her husband and to reside with her family. Official propaganda confined women's roles to family care and motherhood. Most progressive laws passed by the Second Republic were declared void. Women could not become judges, or testify in the trial. They could not become university professors. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was increasing liberalization, yet such measures would continue until Franco's death. In 1947, Franco proclaimed Spain
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