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50-507: The dam was designed to minimize the impact on the river, never leaving any section of the river dry. The roller-compacted concrete gravity dam is to have a maximum height of 44.91 m (147.3 ft) and a maximum reservoir surface of 2.58 km (1.00 sq mi), including 0.69 km (0.27 sq mi) currently occupied by the Tabasara River and 1.89 km (0.73 sq mi) that would be inundated, according to

100-434: A court. Roller-compacted concrete Roller-compacted concrete ( RCC ) or rolled concrete ( rollcrete ) is a special blend of concrete that has essentially the same ingredients as conventional concrete but in different ratios, and increasingly with partial substitution of fly ash for portland cement . The partial substitution of fly ash for Portland Cement is an important aspect of RCC dam construction because

150-666: A downstream slope that resembles a concrete staircase. Once a layer is placed, it can immediately support the earth-moving equipment to place the next layer. After RCC is deposited on the lift surface, small dozers typically spread it in one-foot-thick (about 30 cm) layers. The first RCC dam built in the United States was the Willow Creek Dam on Willow Creek, a tributary in Oregon of the Columbia River . It

200-600: A formal investigation into the human rights impacts of the dam and to call on the government to "immediately halt the dam’s construction until the threats to the rights of the indigenous Ngӓbe people affected by the project have been fully addressed". On September 6, 2013, the United Nations released three reports on the water flow simulation, a participatory rural appraisal as well as an ecological and economic analysis conducted by two independent international experts, Gonzalo Castro de la Mata and Luis Lopez, showing that

250-587: A further cost of US$ 2 million, which initially reduced the leakage by nearly 75%; over the years, seepage has since decreased to less than 10% of its initial flow. Concern over the dam's long-term safety has continued however, although only indirectly related to its RCC construction. Within a few years of construction, problems were noted with stratification of the reservoir water, caused by upstream pollution and anoxic decomposition, which produced hydrogen sulfide gas. Concerns were expressed that this could in turn give rise to sulfuric acid , and thus accelerate damage to

300-611: A referendum on the dam, but the indigenous leader Silvia Carrera , elected as Cacica General in September 2011, initially rejected it. An international campaign was started to stop construction of the dam and international funding for it. In March 2012 Parliament passed a modified version of the mining law that prohibited mining in the indigenous territory and required the approval of the Ngöbe Buglé General Congress for any future hydroelectric projects. However,

350-480: A social development plan for the indigenous communities living next to the dam, including "infrastructure, health and education programs" during the construction and during the operation of the dam. In January 2009 a validation team consisting of the consulting firm AENOR working for the UN CDM Executive Board visited the area and confirmed "that the most relevant communities involved in the area of

400-480: Is owned by the Kafie family: the public registry lists Luis Kafie (President), Luis Jose Kafie (Treasurer and Director), Shukri Kafie (Director), Eduardo Kafie (Director), Eduardo Kafie Atala (Director) and Christoper Kafie (Director) as member of the board of GENISA. The project is financed by loans that have been provided by two European state-owned banks that promote private sector investments in developing countries,

450-524: Is placed in a manner similar to road paving ; the material is delivered by dump trucks or conveyors , spread by small bulldozers or specially modified asphalt pavers , and then compacted by vibratory rollers . In dam construction, roller-compacted concrete began its initial development with the construction of the Alpe Gera Dam near Sondrio in North Italy between 1961 and 1964. Concrete

500-715: The German Investment Corporation (DEG) and the Netherlands Development Finance Company (FMO), as well as by the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI). CABEI approved a USD 25 million loan to the project developer in 2011. Total funding from the three banks amounts to USD 78.3 million. There is a long-standing conflict between the Ngäbe people and the government concerning mining and

550-860: The World Bank and the World Conservation Union in response to growing opposition to dams. During its two-year lifetime, the WCD conducted what is said to be the most exhaustive study of dams completed to date, evaluating over 1,000 dams in 79 countries. In its published final report, the WCD concluded that although "dams have made an important and significant contribution to human development, and benefits derived from them have been considerable ... in too many cases an unacceptable and often unnecessary price has been paid to secure those benefits, especially in social and environmental terms, by people displaced, by communities downstream, by taxpayers, and by

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600-520: The Catholic Church, the environmental agency ANAM, the electricity regulatory agency ASEP and the project developer GENISA, visited the area. The purpose of the inspection was to verify on the ground issues that had not been answered satisfactorily in the environmental impact assessment. The inspection team presented its report in December 2012, recommending a water flow simulation to understand

650-740: The General Administrator of the National Authority for Public Services declared that the Ngäbe-Bugle General Congress never presented a formal rejection document to the government, meaning dam operations could begin. In the meantime, 11 houses and fields had been flooded by the rising waters of the reservoir. Shortly after the declaration, the hydropower plant began its operation. In August 2017 three indigenous leaders who had been accused of causing damages to GENISA through their protests were acquitted by

700-858: The General Congress of the Ngäbe-Buglé. Also in June 2011 the UN Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Board approved the carbon finance proposal that was to generate part of the revenue stream for the project. On August 25, 2011, a Compensation and Benefits Agreement was signed between GENISA and the Board of the Regional Congress of the Kädriri. However, the conflict remained unresolved. The government called for

750-527: The adverse effects of dams and their legacies that it has identified in over 60 countries. The organization has staff in South Africa , Thailand , Brazil , China , India , and the United States, who have expertise in a range of issues and who use research, education, and advocacy to achieve the organization's mission. The organization's stated aims are to protect rivers and defend the rights of communities that depend on them. It actively works against

800-431: The area to be flooded is 1.89 km (0.73 sq mi), or 189 hectares. However, critics allege that the livelihoods of some 5000 Ngöbe farmers who rely on the river for potable water, agriculture and fishing will be negatively impacted, and primary forest would be cut down. They also say that the impacted communities have never provided their free, prior and informed consent to the project. Furthermore, they say that

850-574: The area, and of the contract signed by President Juan Carlos Varela." On August 22, 2016, Silva Carrera and President Varela signed another agreement. This agreement was voted down by the Ngäbe-Bugle General Congress in September 2016. The UN Clean Development Mechanism deregistered the dam in October 2016. In December 2016 the Supreme Court, whose decisions cannot be appealed, ruled against two legal actions by indigenous communities. In March 2017

900-463: The banks took significant steps to understand the situation as part of their due diligence process, they accepted an indigenous peoples report that was insufficient for the purpose to approve the credit in January 2011, requiring further investigations as a condition for disbursement, while their own standards would have required a fully satisfactory report at the time of approval. The two banks accepted

950-428: The concession contract between the government and GENISA was signed. After presidential elections in early 2009, in June 2009 Ricardo Martinelli , a businessman who promised to quickly upgrade Panama's infrastructure, took office as President of Panama. In May 2009 GENISA requested a modification of the permit to increase the capacity by 52% to 28.8 Megawatt by moving the turbines to a lower elevation, without increasing

1000-469: The conclusions and committed themselves to "further raise the bar on the required level of information on stakeholder consultation available to (them) at the time of credit approval." In the meantime, the government of Panama - since June 2014 led by a new President, Juan Carlos Varela - suspended the construction of the dam in February 2015 on the grounds that the environmental and social impact assessment

1050-584: The concrete. The controversy itself, as well as its handling, continued for some years. In 2004 an aeration plant was installed to address the root cause in the reservoir, as had been suggested 18 years earlier. In the quarter century following the construction of the Willow Creek Dam, considerable research and experimentation yielded many improvements in concrete mix designs, dam designs and construction methods for roller-compacted concrete dams. By 2008, about 350 RCC dams existed worldwide. As of 2018,

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1100-607: The construction of dams for hydropower generation in or near their territory. The Ngäbe-Buglé Comarca was created in 1997 for the use of the Ngäbe and Buglé indigenous communities. Despite this during the 1970s the Panamanian government proposed to dam the Tabasara with a 220MW hydroelectric project designed to supply energy to the proposed Colorado Copper Mines. This project was cancelled following widespread protests. They had won

1150-401: The dam had no impact on global biodiversity, but had "real and important impacts" on the indigenous populations living in the area. However, the report did not mention that any villages would be inundated. Furthermore, the experts concluded that "the local population had not been correctly consulted". They also concluded that the local population had "a rudimentary and often erroneous knowledge of

1200-429: The dam would be completed, but that the electromechanical works would remain suspended and the dam would not be flooded until a final agreement had been reached. GENISA complained that it had been left out of the agreement and that the agreement violated the agreements concluded by the state with the company. In September 2015 the environmental agency ANAM imposed a 775,200 USD fine on GEMISA for having failed to comply with

1250-440: The dam. At the time, the indigenous M-10 Movement rejected the dam, because it considered indigenous people would lose their land, would not be able to use the river any more and because the environment would be harmed. However, most of the consulted people supported the project, because it would provide jobs, better road access and improved living standards. Some of those who were opposed to the project subsequently sold their land to

1300-532: The development model associated with dams , which it believes to be unsustainable, and promotes alternative solutions for meeting water, energy, and flood-management needs. International Rivers is dedicated to giving dam-affected people the tools to participate in the development of local lands in Africa , Asia , and Latin America . By facilitating international grassroots organizing and informed participation,

1350-586: The development of mining projects in indigenous areas, while the indigenous people had asked for a law banning mining in their territories. The proposal and the simultaneous launching of bids for a large copper mining project called Cerro Colorado triggered protests of indigenous people, including local communities from the Barro Blanco area, who blocked the Interamerican Highway for four days. The protests were violently suppressed. The conflict

1400-446: The environment. International Rivers has undertaken a two-pronged approach to analyzing and promoting viable water and energy solutions. Combining its efforts to change global policy by campaigning on specific key projects, the organization simultaneously addresses the root causes and localized consequences of dam development. The organization's campaigns throughout Africa, China, Latin America, South Asia , and Southeast Asia focus on

1450-423: The first battle of the Tabasara dams, however, during the 1990s another project was proposed - this time a 48MW dam, they again successfully defeated this proposal. This thereafter resulted in the Panamanian government changing national law in order to repeal requirements related to participation from indigenous communities. This long history of conflict regarding their traditional and spiritual lands has resulted in

1500-482: The four participating companies GENISA was selected. The Public Services Authority ASEP authorized GENISA to prepare studies and, subject to obtaining all relevant approvals, to develop the Barro Blanco project. GENISA commissioned an Environmental Impact Study. As part of this study, in August 2007 in a public forum with the participation of local authorities, villagers close to the project were asked about their view of

1550-571: The habitat of the endangered Tabasará rain frog would be destroyed. GENISA says that the Tabasará rain frog lives in several habitats in Panama, including in the Anton Valley hundreds of kilometers away from the site. In 2006, under the government of President Martín Torrijos , an international public tender was announced for various hydropower projects in Panama, including Barro Blanco. Among

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1600-399: The heat generated by fly ash hydration is significantly less than the heat generated by portland cement hydration. This in turn reduces the thermal loads on the concrete and reduces the potential for thermal cracking to occur. RCC is a mix of cement/fly ash, water, sand, aggregate and common additives, but contains much less water. The produced mix is drier and essentially has no slump . RCC

1650-738: The highest dam of this type was the Gilgel Gibe III Dam in Ethiopia, at 250 m (820 ft), with the Pakistani Diamer-Bhasha Dam under construction at 272 m (892 ft). International Rivers Network International Rivers is a nonprofit , nongovernmental , environmental , and human rights organization. Founded in 1985 by social and environmental activists, International Rivers works with policy and financial analysts, scientists, journalists, development specialists, and volunteers to combat

1700-512: The impact of sudden floods as well as a participatory rural appraisal. In March 2013 an indigenous protester against the dam was killed by masked assailants. In July 2013, James Anaya , UN special rapporteur on the rights of indigenous people, visited Panama and spoke to the Ngöbe. In his report he concluded that the Ngöbe "were not properly consulted". Prior to the visit 12 local and international civil society organizations had asked Anaya to conduct

1750-486: The intersection of dams and climate change, reforming the policies and practices of international financial institutions, and promoting water and energy solutions that recognize human rights and environmental sustainability . Among its accomplishments, International Rivers contributed to the formation of the World Commission on Dams (WCD). The commission was a global, multi-stakeholder body initiated in 1997 by

1800-585: The organization seeks to change the terms of the debate over river development. The group works with its numerous partners to advocate for social reparations , ecological restoration , and the decommissioning of existing dams. International Rivers works to clarify what it describes as the traditionally top-down decision-making of large infrastructure projects. It also takes a stance against the industry's representation of hydropower as it relates to climate change : The organization maintains that reservoirs often produce greenhouse gas emissions that further impact

1850-621: The project design document submitted to the UN Clean Development Mechanism Executive Board. 0.07 km (0.027 sq mi) of the inundated land would be located In the indigenous territory ( Comarca ) of the Ngöbe–Buglé people . The installed capacity of the planned hydropower plant is 28.84 Megawatt. The project developer is Generadora del Istmo S. A. (GENISA), a Panamanian special purpose company created specifically for this project. GENISA

1900-561: The project developer. In December 2007, GENISA and representatives of the Ngobe Bugle people signed a cooperation agreement that included safeguards for the fundamental rights of the indigenous people. In May 2008 the Panamanian Environmental Authority ANAM approved the project based on the study. In December 2008 GENISA signed a Memorandum of Understanding in which it committed itself to implement

1950-426: The project were consulted, all of them supported the project activity, and project participant (i.e. GENISA) has forecasted several social compensation measurements for the communities involved." The International Rivers Network says that the validation report by AENOR was flawed, since allegedly only the non-indigenous population had been consulted and they had failed to take into account all comments received. In 2009

2000-669: The project, being a product of rumors, often without foundation". Together with the insufficient consultation this had created a climate of fear. In April 2014 Silvia Carrera, the Cacica General of the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé , submitted a complaint to the Independent External Panels of DEG and FMO. In May 2015 the joint review of the panels found that the banks had failed to fully comply with the standards to which they had committed themselves. While

2050-413: The prolonged social mobilisation of the Ngäbe-Buglé communities. According to GENISA, no indigenous village or houses would be inundated by the reservoir and no one would be resettled. However 5 hectares of stream bed will be flooded during the rainy season. The land to be inundated consists of ravines close to the river that are not suitable for agriculture or livestock grazing. According to another source

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2100-427: The resettlement and compensation measures under the project. On January 21, 2016, the indigenous movement 10 April claimed that the agreement had been violated, because tests to fill the reservoir had been made. On January 28, 2016, a technical report was presented to the indigenous communities, showing that the dam was technically safe. Furthermore, a sub-commission consisting of the government and traditional authorities

2150-485: The traditional authorities of the Ngöbe criticized Silvia Carrera for having given in. They had asked for a complete ban on hydropower projects to be included in the law. Construction had to be halted in May 2012, because the local population occupied the site. The protests were suspended while "UN inspectors" were expected to visit the area. In September 2012 an inspection team led by UNDP and consisting of representatives of

2200-469: The water level in the reservoir. The original environmental study and the permit referred to an installed capacity of only 19 Megawatt. In January 2010 ANAM approved the modification, and in January 2011 the concession contract was modified accordingly. As of 2010, according to the UN CDM project document, 98% of the land to be inundated was owned by GENISA. According to critics, the environmental impact study

2250-468: Was constructed by the US Army Corps of Engineers between November 1981 and February 1983. Construction proceeded well, within a fast schedule and under budget (estimated US$ 50 million, actual US$ 35 million). On initial filling though, it was found that the leakage between the compacted layers within the dam body was unusually high. This condition was treated by traditional remedial grouting at

2300-402: Was created to further study the impacts of the project in view of a "final decision". Filling of the reservoir began on May 24, leading to further protests and road blocks. In response, Vice-President and Minister of Foreign Affairs Isabel Saint Malo de Alvarado held talks with indigenous leaders early June 2016. Carrera said that the filling "was a violation of the rights of indigenous people in

2350-469: Was faulty pending the outcome of a court case that challenges the assessment. In June 2015 new protests erupted, with protesters shutting down the Interamerican Highway for two days, as a result of which the President sent a riot squad to the area. On August 10, 2015, President Varela and the Cacica General of the indigenous Comarca, Silvia Carrera, signed an agreement to the effect that the civil works of

2400-507: Was flawed, because impacts on biodiversity were assessed superficially and because the capacity of the plant was increased. In late 2010 the European Investment Bank withdrew funding for the dam after an investigation into human rights abuses prompted by NGO protests. In January 2011 DEG and FMO approved their loans for the project. In February 2011, the Panamanian government proposed a new mining law that would facilitate

2450-840: Was laid in a similar form and method but not rolled. RCC had been touted in engineering journals during the 1970s as a revolutionary material suitable for, among other things, dam construction. Initially and generally, RCC was used for backfill, sub-base and concrete pavement construction, but increasingly it has been used to build concrete gravity dams because the low cement content and use of fly ash cause less heat to be generated while curing than do conventional mass concrete placements. Roller-compacted concrete has many time and cost benefits over conventional mass concrete dams; these include higher rates of concrete placement, lower material costs and lower costs associated with post-cooling and formwork . For dam applications, RCC sections are built lift-by-lift in successive horizontal layers resulting in

2500-467: Was temporarily ended through the San Felix agreement, signed in the village of San Felix. Construction of the dam began in February 2011. On June 25, 2011, according to the project developer GENISA, the regional congress of the Kädriri, the local group of Ngäbe people , approved by public majority voting that the construction of the dam should continue, after having been authorized to take a decision by

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