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81-446: Bdelloidea / ˈ d ɛ l ɔɪ d i ə / (from Greek βδέλλα, bdella 'leech') is a class of rotifers found in freshwater habitats all over the world. There are over 450 described species of bdelloid rotifers (or 'bdelloids'), distinguished from each other mainly on the basis of morphology . The main characteristics that distinguish bdelloids from related groups of rotifers are exclusively parthenogenetic reproduction and

162-498: A monophyletic group with Bdelloidea, Monogononta and Seisonidea. To accommodate this finding, some authors extend the term 'Rotifera' to include the highly modified, parasitic 'acanthocephalan rotifers' alongside bdelloid, monogonont and seisonid rotifers. Others refer to the grouping of the four taxa as Syndermata, a term derived from their shared syncytial epidermis. The position of Bdelloidea within Syndermata (or Rotifera)

243-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,

324-558: A distinguishing characteristic since all the other genera release faeces as loose material. Most bdelloids retract the foot while they eat, but there are four genera that lack a foot: Adineta , Bradyscela , Henoceros and Philodinavus . This affects not only how they feed but also how they crawl; for instance Adineta and Bradyscela slide whereas the other genera loop. The behaviour of bdelloids can be split into four categories: feeding, locomotion, reproduction and stress-induced behaviours. The specific feeding behaviour of bdelloids

405-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in

486-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on

567-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near

648-679: A unique mechanism to help overcome one of the major perils of asexual reproduction. According to the Red Queen hypothesis of co-evolution , obligate asexuals will be driven extinct by rapidly changing parasites and pathogens, because they cannot change their genotypes quickly enough to keep up in this never-ending race. In populations of bdelloid rotifers, however, many parasites are destroyed during periods of extended desiccation. Moreover, desiccated bdelloid rotifers are easily blown away from parasite-infested habitats by wind, and establish new, healthy populations elsewhere, which allows them to escape

729-416: A variety of organ systems . These specific systems are widely studied in human anatomy . The functions of these organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus . For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system . The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of

810-687: A whole, are referred to as the Organon because logic is a tool for philosophical thinking. Earlier thinkers, such as those who wrote texts in the Hippocratic corpus , generally did not believe that there were organs of the body but only different parts of the body. Some alchemists (e.g. Paracelsus ) adopted the Hermetic Qabalah assignment between the seven vital organs and the seven classical planets as follows: Chinese traditional medicine recognizes eleven organs, associated with

891-405: Is a diagnostic key developed in 1995 by Shiel. There are three main regions of the body of bdelloids: head, trunk and foot. The adjacent image depicts each area to show how body parts can be very different although they are named the same depending on the species involved. Bdelloids typically have a well-developed corona, divided into two parts, on a retractable head. Some identifiable features of

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972-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout

1053-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system

1134-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During

1215-402: Is capable of carrying out DNA repair by a nonreductional meiosis . Germline DNA repair occurs in a specific period of oogenesis during which homologous chromosomes take on a meiotic-like juxtaposed configuration. This germline DNA repair results in accurate reconstitution of the genetic material transmitted to offspring. In 2003, the mode of asexual reproduction in the bdelloid rotifers

1296-474: Is not entirely clear. Alternative possible phylogenetic relationships within the clade are illustrated by the accompanying cladograms. As of 2014, the "most comprehensive phylogenomic analysis of syndermatan relationships" to date was based on transcriptome data from all four groups, and provided "strong support" for the hypothesis illustrated in the bottom left of the figure, in which Seisonidea and Acanthocephala are sister taxa. The study further indicated that

1377-519: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to

1458-867: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Organ (anatomy) An organ's tissues can be broadly categorized as parenchyma ,

1539-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around

1620-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,

1701-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with

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1782-406: Is the placenta , which has evolved more than 100 times independently in vertebrates, has evolved relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in extant taxa. Studies on the evolution of the placenta have identified a variety of genetic and physiological processes that contribute to the origin and evolution of organs, these include the re-purposing of existing animal tissues,

1863-416: Is under much debate at present; particularly with regards to possible connections between the foreign genes and the desiccation process as well as possible connections to bdelloids' ancient asexuality. When they desiccate completely, their DNA breaks up into many pieces. And when they come back to life after being rehydrated, it creates an opportunity for alien DNA fragments to enter their genome. This process

1944-447: Is varied but most use rings of cilia in the corona organ to create currents of water which blow food through the mouth to the mastax organ which has been adapted specifically for grinding food. Food includes suspended bacteria, algae, detritus, and other things. There appear to be three main methods of movement: free swimming , inch-worming along a substrate, or sessility . Inch-worming (or crawling) involves taking alternate steps with

2025-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It

2106-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as

2187-481: The apomixis seen in some plants. Each individual has paired gonads . Despite having been asexual for millions of years, they have diversified into more than 450 species and are fairly similar to other sexually reproducing rotifer species. However, a new study provided evidence for interindividual genetic exchange and recombination in Adineta vaga , a species previously thought to be anciently asexual. Adineta vaga

2268-418: The haruspices or the augurs in order to divine the future by their shape, dimensions or other factors. This practice remains an important ritual in some remote, tribal societies. The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term " parietal ", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity " The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to

2349-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in

2430-417: The stomach , intestines , gallbladder , bladder , and rectum . In the thoracic cavity , the heart is a hollow, muscular organ. Splanchnology is the study of the viscera. The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term " parietal ", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity ". The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to

2511-461: The 20th century, organ transplants began to take place as scientists knew more about the anatomy of organs. These came later in time as procedures were often dangerous and difficult. Both the source and method of obtaining the organ to transplant are major ethical issues to consider, and because organs as resources for transplant are always more limited than demand for them, various notions of justice, including distributive justice , are developed in

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2592-470: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into

2673-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit

2754-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than

2835-495: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in

2916-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow

2997-685: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community

3078-524: The Red Queen by moving in time and space instead of using sex to change their genotype. When these creatures recover from desiccation, it has been shown that they undergo a potentially unique genetic process where horizontal gene transfer occurs, resulting in a significant proportion of the bdelloid genome, up to 10%, having been obtained through horizontal gene transfer from bacteria, fungi and plants. How and why horizontal gene transfer occur in bdelloids

3159-434: The ability to survive in dry, harsh environments by entering a state of desiccation-induced dormancy ( anhydrobiosis ) at any life stage. They are often referred to as "ancient asexuals" due to their unique asexual history that spans back to over 25 million years ago through fossil evidence. Bdelloid rotifers are microscopic organisms, typically between 150 and 700 μm in length. Most are slightly too small to be seen with

3240-441: The acquisition of new functional properties by these tissues, and novel interactions of distinct tissue types. The study of plant organs is covered in plant morphology . Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive. Vegetative plant organs include roots , stems , and leaves . The reproductive organs are variable. In flowering plants , they are represented by the flower , seed and fruit . In conifers ,

3321-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),

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3402-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of

3483-424: The bdelloids include : The bdelloid digestive and reproductive systems can be found within the trunk sections of their bodies, with the stomach being the most visible of the organs . In certain genera , ( Habrotrocha , Otostephanos and Scepanotrocha ) the bdelloid can actually be identified by the appearance of distinct spherical pellets within the stomach, which will be released as faeces. These pellets are

3564-839: The change in state; e.g. the production of protective chemicals. The bdelloid can remain in this state, which is known as a 'xerosome' until the return of a sufficient amount of water, at which point they will rehydrate and become active within hours. Hatching of the young will only occur when conditions are at their most favourable. These forms of dormancy are also known as cryptobiosis or quiescence. Bdelloids have been known to survive in this state for up to 9 years while waiting for favourable conditions to return. In addition to surviving desiccation through anhydrobiosis, desiccation stress on two bdelloid species actually helped to maintain fitness and even improved their species fecundity . The rotifers that were consistently kept hydrated fared worse than those desiccated and rehydrated. Bdelloidea have evolved

3645-399: The characteristics significant to classification are related to feeding and crawling; however, genetic identification of bdelloids is possible on dead individuals. Once preserved, the individuals contract into "blobs" which restricts analysis. There are currently three morphological identification methodologies, two of which are considered dated: Bartoš (1951) and Donner (1965). The third method

3726-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of

3807-618: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute

3888-402: The ethical analysis. This situation continues as long as transplantation relies upon organ donors rather than technological innovation, testing, and industrial manufacturing. The English word "organ" dates back to the twelfth century and refers to any musical instrument. By the late 14th century, the musical term's meaning had narrowed to refer specifically to the keyboard-based instrument . At

3969-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in

4050-553: The functional tissue, and stroma , the structural tissue with supportive, connective, or ancillary functions. For example, the gland 's tissue that makes the hormones is the parenchyma , whereas the stroma includes the nerves that innervate the parenchyma, the blood vessels that oxygenate and nourish it and carry away its metabolic wastes, and the connective tissues that provide a suitable place for it to be situated and anchored. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, such as arising from

4131-400: The head and tail, as do certain leeches , which gives the group their name ( Greek βδέλλα or bdella , meaning leech). Bdelloids are of interest in the study of the evolution of sex because a male has never been observed, and females reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis , a form of asexual reproduction where embryos grow and develop without the need for fertilization; this is akin to

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4212-419: The inability to respond to sex-inducing signals in obligate parthenogens was caused by simple Mendelian inheritance of the gene op. Bdelloids are able to survive environmental stresses by entering a state of dormancy known as anhydrobiosis which enables the organism to rapidly dehydrate and thus resist desiccation. While preparing for this dormant state many metabolic processes are adjusted to equate for

4293-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn

4374-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write

4455-468: The liver and heart evolved in the chordates about 550-500 million years ago, while the gut and brain are even more ancient, arising in the ancestor of vertebrates, insects, molluscs, and worms about 700–650 million years ago. Given the ancient origin of most vertebrate organs, researchers have looked for model systems, where organs have evolved more recently, and ideally have evolved multiple times independently. An outstanding model for this kind of research

4536-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek

4617-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and

4698-492: The naked eye, but appear as tiny white dots through even a weak hand lens , especially in bright light. In June 2021, biologists reported the restoration of bdelloid rotifers after being frozen for 24,000 years in the Siberian permafrost . The phylum Rotifera traditionally included three classes : Bdelloidea, Monogononta and Seisonidea . Prior to 1990, phylogenetic studies based on morphology seemed to indicate that

4779-467: The new generation of plants (see clonal colony ). Many societies have a system for organ donation , in which a living or deceased donor's organ are transplanted into a person with a failing organ. The transplantation of larger solid organs often requires immunosuppression to prevent organ rejection or graft-versus-host disease . There is considerable interest throughout the world in creating laboratory-grown or artificial organs . Beginning in

4860-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks

4941-536: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It

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5022-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as

5103-403: The opposing sides. Aristotle used the word frequently in his philosophy, both to describe the organs of plants or animals (e.g. the roots of a tree, the heart or liver of an animal) because, in ancient Greek, the word ' organon ' means 'tool', and Aristotle believed that the organs of the body were tools for us by means of which we can do things. For similar reasons, his logical works, taken as

5184-406: The opposing sides. The organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more derived phyla , i.e. the bilaterians . The less-advanced taxa (i.e. Placozoa , Porifera , Ctenophora and Cnidaria ) do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs. More complex animals are composed of different organs, which have evolved over time. For example,

5265-514: The organ that bears the reproductive structures is called a cone . In other divisions ( phyla ) of plants, the reproductive organs are called strobili , in Lycopodiophyta , or simply gametophores in mosses . Common organ system designations in plants include the differentiation of shoot and root. All parts of the plant above ground (in non- epiphytes ), including the functionally distinct leaf and flower organs, may be classified together as

5346-413: The relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems . In the study of anatomy , viscera ( sg. : viscus ) refers to the internal organs of the abdominal , thoracic , and pelvic cavities . The abdominal organs may be classified as solid organs or hollow organs . The solid organs are the liver , pancreas , spleen , kidneys , and adrenal glands . The hollow organs of the abdomen are

5427-534: The same germ layer . Organs exist in most multicellular organisms . In single-celled organisms such as members of the eukaryotes , the functional analogue of an organ is known as an organelle . In plants, there are three main organs. The number of organs in any organism depends on the definition used. There are approxiamately 79 Organs in the human body,but it is something that is debated as not all scientist agree on what counts as an organ. Except for placozoans , multicellular animals including humans have

5508-489: The same time, a second meaning arose, in reference to a "body part adapted to a certain function". Plant organs are made from tissue composed of different types of tissue. The three tissue types are ground, vascular, and dermal. When three or more organs are present, it is called an organ system. The adjective visceral , also splanchnic , is used for anything pertaining to the internal organs. Historically, viscera of animals were examined by Roman pagan priests like

5589-409: The shoot organ system. The vegetative organs are essential for maintaining the life of a plant. While there can be 11 organ systems in animals, there are far fewer in plants, where some perform the vital functions, such as photosynthesis , while the reproductive organs are essential in reproduction . However, if there is asexual vegetative reproduction , the vegetative organs are those that create

5670-572: The sister group to bdelloid rotifers was Monogononta, with seisonid rotifers as an early-diverging outgroup . Modern molecular phylogenetic studies demonstrate that this classic understanding of 'Rotifera' is incomplete ( paraphyletic ), because it omits a fourth clade of closely related organisms: the Acanthocephala , or thorny-headed worms. Originally classified as a separate phylum , molecular and morphological evidence accumulated between 1994 and 2014 to indicate that Acanthocephala forms

5751-537: The sister group to this taxon is Bdelloidea, whereas Monogononta is the outgroup to all three. This would mean that the closest living relatives of bdelloid rotifers are not monogonont rotifers, as previously believed, but seisonid rotifers and acanthocephalans, despite their highly modified morphology. Bdelloidea is a class of the phylum Rotifera , consisting of three orders: Philodinavida, Philodinida and Adinetida. These orders are divided into four families and about 450 species . Since these organisms are asexual

5832-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of

5913-423: The usual definition of a species as a group of organisms capable of creating fertile offspring is inapplicable, therefore the species concept in these organisms is based on a mixture of morphological and molecular data instead. DNA studies suggest that the diversity is much greater than the original morphological classifications suggest. Bdelloids can only be identified by eye while they are alive because many of

5994-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or

6075-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of

6156-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe

6237-459: Was improved 60 million years ago when they captured a bacterial gene this way, which gave them a new gene regulatory system. The new system was used to keep transposons in check. Bdelloid rotifers are extraordinarily resistant to damage from ionizing radiation due to the same DNA-preserving adaptations used to survive dormancy. These adaptations include an extremely efficient mechanism for repairing DNA double-strand breaks. This repair mechanism

6318-544: Was studied in two Bdelloidea species, Adineta vaga , and Philodina roseola . and appears to involve mitotic recombination between homologous DNA regions within each species. Large-scale horizontal transfer of bacterial, plant and fungal genes into bdelloid rotifers has been documented, and may represent an important factor in bdelloid evolution. Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized :  Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized :  Hellēnikḗ )

6399-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect

6480-400: Was wholly unknown. One theory of how obligate parthenogenesis arose in bdelloid rotifers was that parthenogenic lineages lost the ability to respond to sex-inducing signal, which is why these lineages retained their asexuality. The obligate parthenogenetic strains of bdelloid rotifers produce a sex-inducing signal but have lost the ability to respond to that signal. It was later discovered that

6561-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage

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