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64-398: Betrayal is a commonly used story element in fiction, sometimes used as a plot twist . Philosophers Judith Shklar and Peter Johnson , authors of The Ambiguities of Betrayal and Frames of Deceit , respectively, contend that while no clear definition of betrayal is available, betrayal is more effectively understood through literature . Rodger L. Jackson explains why a clear definition

128-441: A dissociative identity disorder , and is not executed on plea of insanity. Near the end, Aaron's lawyer discovers that he feigned his insanity to avoid the death penalty. Agatha Christie's classic And Then There Were None is another famous example and includes the term as well in a murder ploy where the intended victims are made to guess that one of them will be killed through an act of treachery. The complete second timeline of

192-470: A Time in the West or Frederick Forsyth 's The Odessa File . A cliffhanger or cliffhanger ending, is a plot device in fiction which features a main character in a precarious or difficult dilemma or confronted with a shocking revelation at the end of an episode of serialized fiction. A cliffhanger is hoped to incentivize the audience to return to see how the characters resolve the dilemma. A notable example

256-419: A constellation of negative behaviours, thoughts, and feelings in both its victims and its perpetrators. The interactions are complex. The victims exhibit anger and confusion , and demand atonement from the perpetrator, who in turn may experience guilt or shame , and exhibit remorse . If, after the perpetrator has exhibited remorse or apologized, the victim continues to express anger, this may in turn cause

320-403: A conventional sense, but whose protagonists are still considered "narrators" in the sense that the film is presented from their perspective and the audience mainly encounters the narrative and diegesis through that character's point of view. Peripeteia is a sudden reversal of the protagonist's fortune, whether for good or ill, that emerges naturally from the character's circumstances. Unlike

384-427: A different context. A plot twist may be foreshadowed , to prepare the audience to accept it, but it usually comes with some element of surprise. There are various methods used to execute a plot twist, such as withholding information from the audience, or misleading them with ambiguous or false information. Not every plot has a twist, but some have multiple lesser ones, and some are defined by a single major twist. Since

448-483: A form of false foreshadowing . A false protagonist is a character presented at the start of the story as the main character, but then disposed of, usually killed to emphasize that they will not return. An example is Psycho ' s Marion Crane (portrayed by Janet Leigh ), who is brutally murdered about halfway through the film. Another instance is the film Executive Decision , in which the special-forces team leader, played by highly-billed action star Steven Seagal ,

512-513: A mystery, places a character in a different light, or reveals the reason for a previously inexplicable action. The Alfred Hitchcock film Marnie employed this type of surprise ending. Sometimes this is combined with the above category, as the flashback may reveal the true identity of one of the characters, or that the protagonist is related to one of the villain's past victims, as Sergio Leone did with Charles Bronson 's character in Once Upon

576-406: A nonsexual affair, lying, forming a coalition against the partner, absenteeism, disrespect, unfairness, selfishness, and breaking promises. Double cross is a phrase meaning to deceive by double-dealing. The phrase originates from the use of the word cross in the sense of foul play : deliberate collusion to cause someone to lose a contest of some kind. It has also been suggested that the term

640-597: A similar approach; it begins with the main protagonist, Aeneas , telling stories about the end of the Trojan War and the first half of his journey to Dido , queen of Carthage . The nonlinear approach has been used in works such as the films Mulholland Drive , Sin City , Saw IV , Premonition , Arrival , Pulp Fiction , Memento , Babel , the television shows Lost , How to Get Away with Murder , How I Met Your Mother (especially in many episodes in

704-488: A simple cross-shaped character, consisting of a horizontal and a vertical wedge ( 𒈦 ), read as maš "tax, yield, interest"; the superposition of two diagonal wedges results in a decussate cross ( 𒉽 ), read as pap "first, pre-eminent" (the superposition of these two types of crosses results in the eight-pointed star used as the sign for "sky" or "deity" ( 𒀭 ), DINGIR ). The cuneiform script has other, more complex, cruciform characters, consisting of an arrangement of boxes or

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768-712: A simplification of a ligature for et "and" (introduced by Johannes Widmann in the late 15th century). The letter Aleph is cross-shaped in Aramaic and paleo-Hebrew . Egyptian hieroglyphs with cross-shapes include Gardiner Z9 – Z11 ("crossed sticks", "crossed planks"). Other, unrelated cross-shaped letters include Brahmi ka (predecessor of the Devanagari letter क) and Old Turkic (Orkhon) d² and Old Hungarian b , and Katakana ナ na and メ me . The multiplication sign (×), often attributed to William Oughtred (who first used it in an appendix to

832-570: A symbol in Buddhism , Jainism and Hinduism , and widely popular in the early 20th century as a symbol of good luck or prosperity before adopted as a symbol of Nazism in the 1920s and 30s. Cross shapes are made by a variety of physical gestures . Crossing the fingers of one hand is a common invocation of the symbol. The sign of the cross associated with Christian genuflection is made with one hand: in Eastern Orthodox tradition

896-427: A twist ending in a murder mystery was in " The Three Apples ", a medieval Arabian Nights tale, where the protagonist Ja'far ibn Yahya discovers by chance a key item towards the end of the story that reveals the culprit behind the murder to have been his own slave all along. Flashback , or analepsis, a sudden, vivid reversion to a past event, surprises the reader with previously unknown information that solves

960-425: Is a Latin term meaning "god from the machine." It refers to an unexpected, artificial or improbable character, device or event introduced suddenly in a work of fiction to resolve a situation or untangle a plot. In Ancient Greek theater , the "deus ex machina" ('ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός') was the character of a Greek god literally brought onto the stage via a crane (μηχανῆς— mechanes ), after which a seemingly insoluble problem

1024-464: Is a compound geometrical figure consisting of two intersecting lines , usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of the Latin letter X , is termed a saltire in heraldic terminology. The cross has been widely recognized as a symbol of Christianity from an early period in that religion's history. Before then, it

1088-485: Is a conceptually clear account of betrayal that differentiates between genuine and merely perceived betrayal, and which also provides systematic guidance for the assessment of alleged betrayal in real life. Ben-Yehuda's 2001 work ("Betrayals and Treason Violations of Trust and Loyalty" Westview Press) framed all forms of betrayals and treason under a unifying analytical framework using loyalty , trust and moral boundaries as explanatory tools. An act of betrayal creates

1152-411: Is a type of misdirection , a device intended to distract the protagonist , and by extension the reader, away from the correct answer or from the site of pertinent clues or action. The Indian murder mystery film Gupt: The Hidden Truth cast many veteran actors who had usually played villainous roles in previous Indian films as red herrings in this film to deceive the audience into suspecting them. In

1216-550: Is brought to a satisfactory resolution by the god's will. The term is now used pejoratively for any improbable or unexpected contrivance by which an author resolves the complications of the plot in a play or novel, and which has not been convincingly prepared for in the preceding action; the discovery of a lost will was a favorite resort of Victorian novelists. A red herring is a false clue intended to lead investigators toward an incorrect solution. This device usually appears in detective novels and mystery fiction . The red herring

1280-459: Is in the 1980 Star Wars film The Empire Strikes Back where protagonist Luke Skywalker who initially believed that the antagonist Darth Vader had killed his father, Anakin after Obi-Wan Kenobi told it to him in A New Hope is shocked and horrified when the latter tells him that he himself is his father Anakin, with the revelation eventually being fully dealt with and resolved in Return of

1344-608: Is killed shortly after the mission begins. The character of Casey Becker (played by then A-list actress Drew Barrymore ) in Scream is killed in the first fifteen minutes. An example in literature and television is Ned Stark in the Game of Thrones franchise , who is killed before the end of the first book/season, despite receiving the most focus of the ensemble of characters. A non-linear narrative works by revealing plot and character in non-chronological order. This technique requires

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1408-401: Is needed: Betrayal is both a "people" problem and a philosopher's problem. Philosophers should be able to clarify the concept of betrayal, compare and contrast it with other moral concepts, and critically assess betrayal situations. At the practical level people should be able to make honest sense of betrayal and also to temper its consequences: to handle it, not be assaulted by it. What we need

1472-481: Is not exclusive to victims. Perpetrators, and witnesses may also display betrayal blindness in order to preserve personal relationships, their relationships with institutions, and social systems upon which they depend. The term "Institutional Betrayal" refers to wrongdoings perpetrated by an institution upon individuals dependent on that institution. This includes failure to prevent or respond supportively to wrongdoings by individuals (e.g. sexual assault) committed within

1536-541: Is that the former is historically seen as being caused primarily by fear , whereas betrayal trauma is a response to extreme anger . Another key difference is that betrayal trauma involves an individual experiencing a violation of trust between a trusted individual or institution, whereas posttraumatic stress disorder does not involve a violation from a trusted source. John Gottman 's What Makes Love Last? describes betrayal as "a noxious invader, arriving with great stealth" that undermines seemingly stable romances and lies at

1600-464: Is the protagonist's sudden recognition of his or her own or another character's true identity or nature. Through this technique, previously unforeseen character information is revealed. A notable example of anagnorisis occurs in Oedipus Rex : Oedipus kills his father and marries his mother in ignorance, learning the truth only toward the climax of the play. The earliest use of this device as

1664-497: The deus ex machina device, peripeteia must be logical within the frame of the story. An example of a reversal for ill would be Agamemnon 's sudden murder at the hands of his wife Clytemnestra in Aeschylus ' The Oresteia or the inescapable situation Kate Hudson 's character finds herself in at the end of The Skeleton Key . This type of ending was a common twist ending utilised by The Twilight Zone , most effectively in

1728-700: The 2nd century AD to succeeding Ichthys in aftermaths of that new religion's separation from Judaism . Clement of Alexandria in the early 3rd century calls it τὸ κυριακὸν σημεῖον ("the Lord's sign") he repeats the idea, current as early as the Epistle of Barnabas , that the number 318 (in Greek numerals , ΤΙΗ) in Genesis 14:14 was a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (the letter Tau) and of Jesus (the letters Iota Eta ). Clement's contemporary Tertullian rejects

1792-680: The Double Cross System to release captured Nazis and have them transmit to Germany false information. Betrayal blindness is the unawareness, not-knowing, and forgetting exhibited by people towards betrayal. The term "betrayal blindness" was introduced in 1996 by Freyd, and expanded in 1999 by Freyd and then again in 2013 by Freyd and Birrell through the Betrayal Trauma Theory. This betrayal blindness may extend to betrayals that are not considered traditional traumas, such as adultery, and inequities. Betrayal blindness

1856-730: The European Bronze Age the cross symbol appeared to carry a religious meaning , perhaps as a symbol of consecration, especially pertaining to burial. The cross sign occurs trivially in tally marks , and develops into a number symbol independently in the Roman numerals (X "ten"), the Chinese rod numerals ( 十 "ten") and the Brahmi numerals ("four", whence the numeral 4 ). In the Phoenician alphabet and derived scripts ,

1920-538: The Patriarchal cross (☦), Cross of Lorraine (☨) and Cross potent (☩, mistakenly labeled a " Cross of Jerusalem "). The following is a list of cross symbols, except for variants of the Christian cross and Heraldic crosses , for which see the dedicated lists at Christian cross variants and Crosses in heraldry , respectively. The swastika or crux gammata (in heraldry fylfot ), historically used as

1984-450: The cardinal points , or the unity of a vertical axis mundi or celestial pole with the horizontal world (Koch, 1955). Speculation of this kind became especially popular in the mid- to late-19th century in the context of comparative mythology seeking to tie Christian mythology to ancient cosmological myths . Influential works in this vein included G. de Mortillet (1866), L. Müller (1865), W. W. Blake (1888), Ansault (1891), etc. In

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2048-597: The 10th century. A wide variation of cross symbols is introduced for the purposes of heraldry beginning in the age of the Crusades . The cross mark is used to mark a position, or as a check mark , but also to mark deletion . Derived from Greek Chi are the Latin letter X , Cyrillic Kha and possibly runic Gyfu . Egyptian hieroglyphs involving cross shapes include ankh "life", ndj "protect" and nfr "good; pleasant, beautiful". Sumerian cuneiform had

2112-510: The 1618 edition of John Napier's Descriptio ) apparently had been in occasional use since the mid 16th century. Other typographical symbols resembling crosses include the dagger or obelus (†), the Chinese ( 十 , Kangxi radical 24 ) and Roman (X ten). Unicode has a variety of cross symbols in the " Dingbat " block (U+2700–U+27BF): The Miscellaneous Symbols block (U+2626 to U+262F) adds three specific Christian cross variants , viz.

2176-457: The Jedi (1983). An unreliable narrator twists the ending by revealing, almost always at the end of the narrative, that the narrator has manipulated or fabricated the preceding story, thus forcing the reader to question his or her prior assumptions about the text. This motif is often used within noir fiction and films , notably in the film The Usual Suspects . An unreliable narrator motif

2240-602: The Latin crux (or its accusative crucem and its genitive crucis ), "stake, cross". The English verb to cross arises from the noun c.  1200 , first in the sense "to make the sign of the cross"; the generic meaning "to intersect" develops in the 15th century. The Latin word was influenced by popular etymology by a native Germanic word reconstructed as * krukjo (English crook , Old English crycce , Old Norse krokr , Old High German krucka ). This word, by conflation with Latin crux , gave rise to Old French crocier (modern French crosse ),

2304-597: The New Sun , the second episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents , Premonition , the 1920 German silent horror film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari , Iain Pears 's An Instance of the Fingerpost , Shutter Island and Kim Newman 's Life's Lottery . The term "unreliable narrator" is sometimes applied to films (such as the aforementioned Brazil and Shutter Island ) which do not feature any voice-over narration in

2368-574: The Roman world, furca replaced crux as the name of some cross-like instruments for lethal and temporary punishment, ranging from a forked cross to a gibbet or gallows . The field of etymology is of no help in any effort to trace a supposed original meaning of crux . A crux can be of various shapes: from a single beam used for impaling or suspending ( crux simplex ) to the various composite kinds of cross ( crux compacta ) made from more beams than one. The latter shapes include not only

2432-467: The accusation that Christians are crucis religiosi (i.e. "adorers of the gibbet"), and returns the accusation by likening the worship of pagan idols to the worship of poles or stakes. In his book De Corona , written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross . While early Christians used the T-shape to represent

2496-621: The beginning of the Upper Paleolithic , and throughout prehistory to the Iron Age . Also of prehistoric age are numerous variants of the simple cross mark, including the crux gammata with curving or angular lines, and the Egyptian crux ansata with a loop. Speculation has associated the cross symbol – even in the prehistoric period – with astronomical or cosmological symbology involving " four elements " (Chevalier, 1997) or

2560-520: The bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code , the misdeeds of a key character named "Bishop Aringarosa" draw attention away from the true master villain ("Aringarosa" literally translates as "pink herring"). In the William Diehl novel Primal Fear (also adapted into a film ), a defendant named Aaron Stampler is accused of brutally murdering the Archbishop of Chicago. He is revealed to have

2624-411: The chest is broken open and a corpse is found inside. The initial search for the murderer fails, and a twist occurs when two men appear, separately claiming to be the murderer. A complex chain of events finally reveals the murderer to be the investigator's own slave. Literary analysts have identified several common categories of plot twists, based on how they are executed. Anagnorisis , or discovery,

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2688-409: The context of the institution. Plot twist A plot twist is a literary technique that introduces a radical change in the direction or expected outcome of the plot in a work of fiction. When it happens near the end of a story, it is known as a twist ending or surprise ending . It may change the audience's perception of the preceding events, or introduce a new conflict that places it in

2752-627: The cross in writing and gesture, the use of the Greek cross and Latin cross , i.e. crosses with intersecting beams, appears in Christian art towards the end of Late Antiquity . An early example of the cruciform halo , used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo , Ravenna (6th century). The Patriarchal cross , a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in

2816-476: The cross symbol represented the phoneme /t/, i.e. the letter taw , which is the historical predecessor of Latin T . The letter name taw means "mark", presumably continuing the Egyptian hieroglyph "two crossed sticks" ( Gardiner Z9 ). The shape of the cross ( crux , stauros "stake, gibbet "), as represented by the Latin letter T , came to be used as a new symbol (seal) or emblem of Christianity since

2880-404: The effectiveness of a plot twist usually relies on the audience's not having expected it, revealing a plot twist to readers or viewers in advance is commonly regarded as a spoiler . Even revealing the fact that a work contains plot twists – especially at the ending – can also be controversial, as it changes the audience's expectations. However, at least one study suggests that this does not affect

2944-560: The enjoyment of a work. Many television series, especially in crime fiction , use plot twists as a theme in every episode and some base their whole premise on the twist; for example, The Twilight Zone and Tales of the Unexpected . An early example of the romance genre with multiple twists was the Arabian Nights tale " The Three Apples ". It begins with a fisherman discovering a locked chest. The first twist occurs when

3008-415: The episode " Time Enough at Last " where Burgess Meredith 's character is robbed of all his hope by a simple but devastating accident with his eyeglasses. A positive reversal of fortune would be Nicholas Van Orton's suicide attempt after mistakenly believing himself to have accidentally killed his brother, only to land safely in the midst of his own birthday party, in the film The Game . Deus ex machina

3072-480: The fourfold arrangement of other characters, including the archaic cuneiform characters LAK -210, LAK-276, LAK-278, LAK-617 and the classical sign EZEN (𒂡). Phoenician tāw is still cross-shaped in Paleo-Hebrew alphabet and in some Old Italic scripts ( Raetic and Lepontic ), and its descendant T becomes again cross-shaped in the Latin minuscule t . The plus sign (+) is derived from Latin t via

3136-617: The gospels and always in the plural number to indicate a stake or pole. From the first century BC, it is used to indicate an instrument used in executions. The Greek word is used in descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross , which indicate that its normal shape was similar to the Greek letter tau ( Τ ). Due to the simplicity of the design (two intersecting lines), cross-shaped incisions make their appearance from deep prehistory; as petroglyphs in European cult caves, dating back to

3200-444: The heart of every failing relationship, even if the couple is unaware of it. Gottman computed a betrayal metric by calculating how unwilling each partner was to sacrifice for the other and the relationship. A consistently elevated betrayal metric served as an indicator that the couple was at risk for infidelity or another serious disloyalty. Some types of betrayal in romantic relationships include sexual infidelity, conditional commitment,

3264-496: The initial cause represents a "twist ending". Examples employing this technique include the films Irréversible , Memento , Happy End and 5x2 , the play Betrayal by Harold Pinter , and Martin Amis ' Time's Arrow . Stephen Sondheim and George Furth's Merrily We Roll Along and the 1934 Kaufman and Hart play that inspired it both tell the story of the main characters in reverse order. cross A cross

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3328-410: The later seasons), Heroes , Westworld , the book Catch-22 , and WandaVision . Reverse chronology works by revealing the plot in reverse order, i.e., from final event to initial event. Unlike chronological storylines, which progress through causes before reaching a final effect, reverse chronological storylines reveal the final effect before tracing the causes leading up to it; therefore,

3392-430: The one who was betrayed can accept that it happened, and that the perpetrator is unwilling or unable to change. No real change means they can do it again. Lack of validation from the perpetrator can be been described as a "second assault," which can exacerbate the effects of the initial trauma incurred. Accepting the betrayal and going no contact is the best route forward. The alternative is to stay in connection and realize

3456-461: The perpetrator to become defensive , and angry in turn. Acceptance of betrayal can be exhibited if victims forgo the demands of atonement and retribution ; but is only demonstrated if the victims do not continue to demand apologies, repeatedly remind the perpetrator or perpetrators of the original act, or ceaselessly review the incident over and over again. If no true apology, atonement, real remorse and plan to change one's behaviors are present, then

3520-498: The reader to attempt to piece together the timeline in order to fully understand the story. A twist ending can occur as the result of information that is held until the climax and which places characters or events in a different perspective. Some of the earliest known uses of non-linear story telling occur in The Odyssey , a work that is largely told in flashback via the narrator Odysseus . The Aeneid , another epic poem , uses

3584-463: The sacred marriage, as in Egyptian amulet Nefer with male cross and female orb, considered as an amulet of blessedness, a charm of sexual harmony. The word cross is recorded in 11th-century Old English as cros , exclusively for the instrument of Christ's crucifixion , replacing the native Old English word rood . The word's history is complicated; it appears to have entered English from Old Irish , possibly via Old Norse , ultimately from

3648-584: The sequence is head-heart-right shoulder-left shoulder, while in Oriental Orthodox, Catholic and Anglican tradition the sequence is head-heart-left-right. Crossing the index fingers of both hands represents and a charm against evil in European folklore. Other gestures involving more than one hand include the "cross my heart" movement associated with making a promise and the Tau shape of the referee 's "time out" hand signal. Crossed index fingers represent

3712-514: The sixth season of the television series Lost is a red herring: initially, this second timeline seems to be an alternate timeline in which Oceanic 815 never crashes (the main timeline revolves around the crashing of such plane on an island ). However, one of the last scenes reveals that this timeline is "a place" where the characters of the series meet after they have died, similar to the Bardo or Limbo concept. A red herring can also be used as

3776-528: The term for a shepherd's crook , adopted in English as crosier . Latin crux referred to the gibbet where criminals were executed, a stake or pole, with or without transom , on which the condemned were impaled or hanged, but more particularly a cross or the pole of a carriage. The derived verb cruciāre means "to put to death on the cross" or, more frequently, "to put to the rack, to torture, torment", especially in reference to mental troubles. In

3840-528: The traditional †-shaped cross (the crux immissa ), but also the T-shaped cross (the crux commissa or tau cross ), which the descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross indicate as the normal form in use at that time, and the X-shaped cross (the crux decussata or saltire ). The Greek equivalent of Latin crux "stake, gibbet" is stauros , found in texts of four centuries or more before

3904-415: The trespass can happen again, and may choose to avoid doing certain things to decrease severity. For example, if a person gossips, do not tell them your secrets. Betrayal trauma has symptoms similar to posttraumatic stress disorder , although the element of amnesia and dissociation is likely to be greater. The key difference between traditional posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and betrayal trauma

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3968-657: Was employed by Agatha Christie in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd , a novel that generated much controversy due to critics' contention that it was unfair to trick the reader in such a manipulative manner. Another example of unreliable narration is a character who has been revealed to be insane and thus causes the audience to question the previous narrative; notable examples of this are in the Terry Gilliam film Brazil , Chuck Palahniuk 's Fight Club (and David Fincher 's film adaptation ), Gene Wolfe 's novel Book of

4032-626: Was inspired by the practice of 18th-century British thief taker and criminal Jonathan Wild , who kept a ledger of his transactions and is said to have placed two crosses by the names of persons who had cheated him in some way. This folk etymology is almost certainly incorrect, but there is documentary evidence that the term did exist in the 19th century. More recently, the phrase was used to refer to either of two possible situations: This use has passed into common parlance, so that, for example, in World War II , British Military Intelligence used

4096-533: Was used as a religious or cultural symbol throughout Europe, in western and south Asia (the latter, in the form of the original Swastika ); and in Egypt, where the Ankh was a hieroglyph that represented "life" and was used in the worship of the god Aten . The effigy of a man hanging on a cross was set up in the fields to protect the crops. It often appeared in conjunction with the female-genital circle or oval, to signify

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