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97-591: The Bezanozano are believed to be one of the earliest Malagasy ethnic groups to establish themselves in Madagascar , where they inhabit an inland area between the Betsimisaraka lowlands and the Merina highlands . They are associated with the vazimba , the earliest inhabitants of Madagascar, and the many vazimba tombs throughout Bezanozano territory are sites of pilgrimage, ritual and sacrifice, although

194-591: A French envoy named Sylvain Roux effectively had economic control over the port city, although it was nominally governed by Zakavolo's uncle Tsihala. A dispute among Tsihala's male relatives over control of the city led to further fracturing of Betsimisaraka political unity, weakening the ability of the Betsimisaraka to unite against increasing foreign encroachment. He lost power the following year to another zana-malata , Jean Rene, who maintained close cooperation with

291-444: A chicken specially prepared for her. After this celebration she is required to leave the komby and can return to routine life. Among the Betsimisaraka, like several other Malagasy ethnic groups, there is a fady against speaking the name of a chief after his death or any word that formed part of the name. The deceased leader was given a new name after death that all were required to use, and specific synonyms were selected to replace

388-494: A confederation in the early 18th century. Like all Malagasy people, the Betsimisaraka are of mixed Bantu African and Asian Austronesian descent. However, the Betsimisaraka are one of the Malagasy tribes to have predominant East African Bantu ancestry, with the average member being around 70% East African. The Betsimisaraka occupy a long, narrow band of territory that stretches along the east coast of Madagascar from Mananjary in

485-511: A cooperation with them to develop diplomatic and economic relations with the French as he had already done over the past decade with British missionaries in the Merina homeland of the central highlands. The area was effectively colonized, with Merina garrisons established at ports and across the Betsimisaraka interior. The Betsimisaraka resented Merina domination and, not receiving assistance from

582-418: A cruel and unpopular leader. A northern Betsimisaraka zana-malata named Ratsimilaho , who was born to the daughter of a local filohany and a British pirate named Thomas Tew around 1694 and had briefly traveled with his father to England and India, led a resistance to these invasions and successfully united his compatriots around this cause despite his young age. He captured Fenerive in 1712, causing

679-409: A grave peril. In another tale, a group of Betsimisaraka sought refuge in a forest from a marauding enemy group. Their enemies followed them into the forest, tracking the Betsimisaraka by what they believed to be the sound of their voices. Upon reaching the source of the sound they discovered a group of ghostly-looking lemurs and, believing the Betsimisaraka had been transformed into animals by magic, fled

776-499: A local movement emerged to abandon notions of historic class affiliation that were holding communities back. Today agriculture remains the primary livelihood of Bezanozano villagers. The Bezanozano were only briefly an organized polity and do not share a strong internal cohesive identity. Their name means "those of many small plaits" in reference to their traditional hairstyle. The center of the Bezanozano community at its height in

873-444: A munitions factory at Mantasoa in the region and a second transport road to Toamasina, effectively bounding the southern part of Bezanozano territory between these two major trade routes. Consequently, the local population were heavily conscripted to provide unpaid labor for major public works projects like road maintenance and support to the trade caravans. The Bezanozano became so strongly associated with unpaid labor and porterage in

970-533: A nationwide uprising against French colonial rule was initiated in Moramanga, a town in Bezanozano territory neighboring the Betsimisaraka. During the conflict, Betsimisaraka nationalists fought French and Senegalese soldiers in an unsuccessful attempt to regain control of the port at Tamatave, the island's most important trading port. Betsimisaraka fighters and civilians suffered very heavy losses and some of

1067-530: A number of ethnic groups, often into the standard eighteen. In addition, communities of Indians in Madagascar and Arabs and Somalis have long been established on the island and have assimilated into local communities to varying degrees, in some places having long since become identified "Malagasy" ethnic groups, and in others maintaining distinct identities and cultural separation. More recent arrivals include Europeans and Chinese immigrants. Madagascar

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1164-405: A series of attacks against villages under his authority and was assassinated by his own subjects in 1767. Zanahary was succeeded by his son Iavy, who was detested for continuing his father's practice of attacking villages under his control, and for enriching himself by cooperating with French slave traders. During the reign of Iavy, an eastern European adventurer named Maurice Benyowsky established

1261-477: A series of powerful leaders. Ramanano, the chief of Vatomandry , was elected in 1710 as the leader of the Tsikoa ("those who are steadfast") and initiated invasions of the northern ports. According to oral histories, Ramanano established an armed militia at Vohimasina which he sent on incursions to burn neighboring villages, desecrate local tombs, and enslave the women and children, contributing to his reputation as

1358-528: A settlement in Betsimisaraka country and proclaimed himself king of Madagascar, persuading several local chieftains to no longer pay tribute to Iboina. This action provoked Sakalava ire, and in 1776 Sakalava soldiers invaded the area to punish the Betsimisaraka inhabitants and kill Benyowsky, but were ultimately unsuccessful in the latter goal. Zakavolo, Iavy's son, succeeded his father upon his death in 1791. European accounts disparage Zakavolo for insisting that they provide him with gifts, and for insulting them when

1455-487: A strong resistance to French rule in 1895. These efforts were eventually subdued. After regaining control, the French colonial authority took steps to address the repercussions of historical subjugation of the Betsimisaraka by the Merina kingdom, providing increased access to basic education as well as opportunities for paid labor at plantations, but often on former Betsimisaraka land that the French authorities had forced local inhabitants to relinquish to colonists. In 1947,

1552-403: Is believed impossible to trace the descendants of these ancestors. All ancient tombs or earthen tomb-shaped mounds are believed to be those of vazimba and so are sites of pilgrimage, sacrifice and ritual to appease their spirits and request their favorable intervention. The Bezanozano also believe in sorcery and fear witchcraft. Although Protestant missionaries and churches became established in

1649-529: Is likewise a significant political figure, having run for president and serving as mayor of Toamasina, the country's main commercial port. Social life revolves around the agricultural year, with preparation of fields beginning in October, the harvest of rice in May, and the winter months from June to September set aside for ancestor worship and other major rituals and customs. There are clear gender divisions among

1746-780: Is never performed during tromba ceremonies. The Betsimisaraka speak several dialects of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . The Betsimisaraka economy remains largely agricultural, with many cultivating vanilla and rice. Manioc, sweet potatoes, beans, taro, peanuts and a variety of greens are also commonly cultivated; other staple crops include sugar cane, coffee, bananas, pineapples, avocado, breadfruit, mangoes, oranges and lychees. Cattle are not widely raised; more commonly,

1843-666: Is not uncommon for Betsimisaraka villagers to throw them zebu hindquarters (the most favored cut), whole geese and other offerings on a daily basis. Amulets for protection against crocodiles are commonly worn or thrown into the water in areas where the animals congregate. It is commonly believed that witches and sorcerers are closely linked with crocodiles, being capable of ordering them to kill others and of walking among them without being attacked. The Betsimisaraka believe witches and sorcerers appease crocodiles by feeding them rice at night, and some are accused of walking crocodiles through Betsimisaraka villages at midnight or even being married to

1940-414: Is not universal or common among the Betsimisaraka, who often keep pigs in their villages. Complex taboos and rites are associated with a woman's first childbirth. When about to give birth she is secluded in a special birthing house called a komby . The leaves she eats from and the waste produced by the newborn are kept in a special receptacle for seven days, at which point they are burned. The ash produced

2037-475: Is performed on accordion. The traditional basesa performed for tromba ceremonies uses kaiamba shakers to accentuate the rhythm; lyrics are always sung in local Betsimisaraka dialect. The accompanying dance is performed with arms to the sides of the body and heavy foot movements. Contemporary basesa , which has been popularized across the island, is performed using a modern drum kit and electric guitar and bass with keyboard or accordion accompaniment, and

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2134-431: Is rubbed on the forehead and cheeks of the mother and baby and must be worn for seven days. On the fifteenth day both are bathed in water in which lime or lemon leaves have been soaked. This ritual is called ranom-boahangy (bath of the leaves). The community gathers to drink rum and celebrate with wrestling matches, but the mother must stay in the komby. She is not allowed to consume anything other than saonjo greens and

2231-410: Is widespread among the Betsimisaraka. Both men and women act as mediums and spectators in these events. The indigenous raffia palm was the base fiber for the clothing traditionally worn by the Betsimisaraka. Leaves of the raffia were combed to separate the fibers, which were knotted end to end to form strands that could then be woven together to form cloth. Among the various peoples who united under

2328-491: The French colonized Madagascar in 1896, initial Betsimisaraka satisfaction with the fall of the Merina government rapidly evolved into displeasure with French control. This led to an uprising the same year among Betsimisaraka, particularly including the bandits and other outlaws who had long been living according to their own law in the eastern rainforests; the movement extended to the broader Betsimisaraka population, who mounted

2425-500: The 18th century, acting as intermediaries in trade between the Merina in the highlands and the European and Arab slave traders and merchants that landed along the east coast. Occasionally Bezanozano villagers would negotiate directly with French traders; some of these were captured and sold into slavery themselves. This intermediary trading role allowed the Bezanozano to amass considerable wealth in slaves and cattle. Some of this wealth

2522-664: The Ankay region particularly in the later 19th century, Merina settlers constitute the majority of Christians in the region; very few Bezanozano have converted to Protestantism. The Bezanozano cultivate rice in terraced, irrigated paddies and prefer not to cut down virgin forest, as they contain vazimba tombs and other natural sites favored by spirits and are the home of the fady -protected indri lemurs. The neighboring Betsimisaraka, however, tend to seek out new forest to cut down for fresh pasture and planting, and consider uncultivated land as unclaimed. This difference of perspective has led

2619-510: The Betanimena by offering their king control over the port of Tamatave, but this settlement fell apart after six months, leading Ratsimilaho to recapture Tamatave and force the Betanimena king to flee south. He established alliances with the southern Betsimisaraka and the neighboring Bezanozano , extending his authority over these areas by allowing local chiefs to maintain their power while offering tribute of rice, cattle and slaves; by 1730 he

2716-427: The Betsimisaraka confederation, women wore a short wrapper ( simbo ), typically with a bandeau top ( akanjo ), while men wore smocks. Traditional raffia clothing is still worn by some Betsimisaraka today. The Betsimisaraka hold lemurs in high regard and tell several legends in which lemurs come to the aid of prominent Betsimisaraka figures. According to one story, a lemur saved the life of a Betsimisaraka ancestor from

2813-542: The Betsimisaraka may catch and sell river crabs, shrimp and fish, small hedgehogs, various local insects or wild boar and birds in the forest. They also produce and sell homemade sugarcane beer ( betsa ) and rum ( toaka ). The production of spices for culinary use and for distillation into perfumes remains a major economic activity, with a perfume distillery located in Fenoarivo Atsinanana. Gold, garnet and other precious stones are also mined and exported from

2910-487: The Betsimisaraka to encroach on land that the Bezanozano believe belongs to them, producing some tension among bordering communities. Indirect speech, discretion, tact and avoidance of conflict mark verbal expression and social interactions among the Bezanozano, similar to the highland Merina but in contrast with the Betsimisaraka of the east coast. In Ambatondrazaka and among certain other Bezanozano communities, consumption of pork has historically been fady . The Indri

3007-403: The Betsimisaraka. When traveling by foot in a mixed gender group, it is forbidden for women to walk before men. Women are traditionally the ones to act as porters, carrying light items on the head and heavy items on the back; if a woman is present, it is considered ridiculous for a man to carry something. When eating, men use a single spoon to fill their plates from the communal bowl and to eat

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3104-412: The Bezanozano believe the descendants among them of these most ancient of ancestors cannot be identified or known. Their name means "those of many small plaits" in reference to their traditional hairstyle, and like the Merina they practice the famadihana reburial ceremony. There were around 100,000 Bezanozano living in Madagascar in 2013. The slave trade and commerce with European trading vessels along

3201-415: The Bezanozano entered into an alliance with the powerful Betsimisaraka Kingdom to the east. They were in regular enough economic relations with Europeans that they were able to offer Spanish piastres in addition to slaves in exchange for the guns provided by European traders. The villages neighboring Bezanozano territory were in many instances invited to assist in transporting Bezanozano trade goods because

3298-433: The Bezanozano were heavily forced into unpaid labor to transport goods between the Merina capital of Antananarivo and the coastal port of Toamasina , leading to massive depopulation of the Ankay region and impoverishment of the villagers. The name Bezanozano became synonymous with "slave". Efforts to improve economic opportunities for the Bezanozano began following French colonization in 1896, and after independence in 1960

3395-402: The Bezanozano, Radama imposed the customary fanampoana (unpaid labor in lieu of taxes) to produce high volumes of rice, cattle and other goods that were to be given to the Merina king as annual tribute. Radama I opened a major transport road from his capital at Antananarivo that ran through Bezanozano territory to the coastal port at Toamasina . His successor, Queen Ranavalona I , established

3492-427: The Bezanozano. The Bezanozano speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . Honey is collected from the forest and sold at market or roadside stands. Historically honey had an important role in Merina royal rituals, and the Bezanozano were considered the best honey collectors. Agriculture remains

3589-459: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses , Seventh-day Adventists , Eastern Orthodox Christians and evangelicals. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their other religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a pastor to attend a famadihana. A historical rivalry exists between

3686-479: The Europeans refused to meet his demands. His subjects deposed him in 1803 with the assistance of then Governor General Magallon, who administered the French island territories; Zakavolo was eventually assassinated by his ex-subjects. Throughout the decades following Ratsimilaho's death, the French established control over Ile Sainte Marie and had established trading ports throughout Betsimisaraka territory. By 1810

3783-557: The French (1896-1960) , a focused effort was made to increase access to education and paid employment working on French plantations. Production of former plantation crops like vanilla, ylang-ylang, coconut oil, and coffee remain the principal economic activity of the region beyond subsistence farming and fishing, although mining is also a source of income. Culturally, the Betsimisaraka can be divided into northern and southern sub-groups. Many elements of culture are common across both groups, including respect for ancestors , spirit possession ,

3880-449: The French as they had hoped, mounted an unsuccessful rebellion in 1825. As Merina presence and authority in the former Betsimisaraka kingdom grew, many local farmers migrated to areas outside Merina control or sought employment with European settlers on plantations where they might be afforded some protection. Any remnants of the ruling line in Betsimisaraka were eliminated under Merina queen Ranavalona I , who ordered many nobles to undergo

3977-446: The French. The Kingdom of Imerina in the island's center had been rapidly unifying and expanding since the late 18th century. In 1817, Merina king Radama I led an army of 25,000 soldiers from Antananarivo to successfully capture Toamasina. Although Jean Rene was not complicit and had been given no forewarning of the military campaign, when Radama arrived the Europeans and zana-malata were not expelled; rather, Radama developed

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4074-556: The Indians in Madagascar have a high level of education, particularly the younger generation. A sizeable number of Europeans also reside in Madagascar , mostly of French descent. Religion in Madagascar (2020) according to the Pew Research Center According to the 1993 national census, 41% of Malagasies practised Christianity and 52% practise traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between

4171-477: The Merina dialect. Indians in Madagascar descend mostly from traders who arrived in the newly independent nation looking for better opportunities. The majority of them came from the west coast of India known as Karana (Muslim) and Banian (Hindu). The majority speak Hindi or Gujarati , although some other Indian languages are also spoken. Nowadays the younger generations speak at least three languages, including French, Gujarati and Malagasy. A large number of

4268-423: The Tsikoa to flee across soggy red fields of clay that stuck to their feet, earning them the new name of Betanimena ("Many of Red Earth"). Ratsimilaho was elected king of all the Betsimisaraka and given a new name, Ramaromanompo ("Lord Served by Many") at his capital at Foulpointe. He gave his northern compatriots the name Betsimisaraka to reaffirm their unity in the face of their enemies. He then negotiated peace with

4365-659: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Madagascar is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with

4462-467: The age of 15 in 2010 was 43.1%, 53.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.1% was 65 years or older. Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019) (Unrevised data. Data refer to projections based on the 1993 Population Census.): UN medium variant projections: Registration of vital events in Madagascar is not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared

4559-406: The area in terror. The spirits of Betsimisaraka ancestors are believed to reside inside the bodies of lemurs. Consequently, in general it is forbidden for the Betsimisaraka to kill or eat lemurs, and it is obligatory to free a trapped lemur and to bury a dead lemur with the same rites as a person. Crocodiles are also viewed with reverence and fear. At river banks where they are known to gather, it

4656-670: The assistance of Kulanu, a nonprofit organization focusing on remote Jewish communities. In 2023, the country scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom. Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022. The following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated. The largest city in Madagascar is Antananarivo . The next largest cities are Toamasina , Antsirabe , Fianarantsoa , Mahajanga , Toliara , Antsiranana and Ambovombe . note: on 21 March 2022,

4753-476: The associated dance style has been influenced by dances performed to sega and kwassa kwassa music from Reunion Island . Basesa is also performed by the Antandroy , but among Betsimisaraka the style is performed significantly more slowly. Another major musical style specific to the region is valse , Malagasy interpretations of traditional European seafarers' waltzes performed on accordion; this genre

4850-473: The core of the Betsimisaraka were organized into numerous clans under the authority of chiefs ( filohany ) who each typically ruled over no more than one or two villages. Those around Antongil Bay in the north held a comparatively more official position, with regalia of leadership attested since at least 1500. The presence of natural bays along the northern coastline that became the port towns of Antongil, Titingue, Foulpointe , Fenerive and Tamatave favored

4947-419: The crocodiles, which they then enslave to do their bidding. Among some Betsimisaraka it is considered fady for a brother to shake hands with his sister, or for young men to wear shoes during their father's lifetime. Among many Betsimisaraka, the eel is considered sacred. It is forbidden to touch, fish or eat eel. Although many coastal Malagasy communities have a fady against the consumption of pork, this

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5044-541: The deadly tangena trial by ordeal. Throughout her reign, cultural practices associated with Europeans were forbidden, including Christianity and Western musical instruments; eventually all Europeans were expelled from the island for the duration of her reign. Her son, Radama II , lifted these restrictions and gradually European presence re-emerged in Betsimisaraka territory as French entrepreneurs established plantations for growing export crops like vanilla, coffee, tea and coconuts. The growing number of Merina colonists from

5141-512: The death of the Merina king, other Bezanozano communities actively rebelled against the authority of the Imerina Kingdom. His son and successor, Radama I , retaliated by burning a major Bezanozano town and slaughtering its inhabitants. Radama and his army of 30,000 soldiers successfully colonized Bezanozano territory in 1817 en route to Toamasina, where he further extended his authority over the Betsimisaraka. Having established control over

5238-452: The demand for Bezanozano services exceeded the manpower available to satisfy it. In the late 18th century the Bezanozano were spread out over a territory twice the size of the area they consider their homeland today, extending from Angavokely in the west to the Betsimisaraka cliffs to the east, and southward to around twelve kilometers beyond Beparasy. The first and only Bezanozano king, Randrianjomoina, emerged around this time. The wealth of

5335-484: The early 19th century but were largely unsuccessful at first. During the colonial period the influence of Christianity among the local population grew, but where it is practiced is often blended syncretically with traditional ancestor worship. Syncretism of Christian and indigenous beliefs led to the motif that the sun (or the moon) was the original location for the Garden of Eden . Although there are differences between

5432-470: The east coast of Madagascar in the 18th century greatly enriched the Bezanozano and led to the emergence of major trading towns such as Ambatondrazaka and Moramanga in their homeland of Ankay. They were initially forced into vassalage by king Andrianampoinimerina of the Kingdom of Imerina in the late 18th century and then fully subdued and colonized in 1817 by his son, King Radama I . Under Merina rule,

5529-490: The economic and political development of the Antavaratra Betsimisaraka; the southern portion of this coastline, by contrast, lacked any areas suitable for ports. Villagers in the areas surrounding the ports exported rice, cattle, slaves and other goods to the nearby Mascarene Islands . The eastern ports' strategic position for regional trade attracted the heaviest settlement of Europeans to this portion of

5626-406: The existence of male and female zanahary , who were effectively the most ancient and most powerful of all the ancestors, and who were invoked anonymously and collectively under the zanahary title in order to avoid excluding and thereby offending any ancestor. The tompontany (masters of the land) are the vazimba , the island's earliest inhabitants; they are distinct from the razana in that it

5723-476: The fabrication of metal tools. Large numbers of Merina migrants settled in this region beginning in the 1920s, where they worked as merchants, traders and forestry capitalists. After Madagascar regained independence in 1960, there was a strong social movement among the Bezanozano to reestablish an ethnic identity in which constraints associated with class and historic social roles were jettisoned in favor of greater freedom, opportunity and equality. Local officials of

5820-460: The following estimates. Source: UN DESA , World Population Prospects, 2022 Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Fertility data as of 2008-2009 (DHS Program): Source: UN World Population Prospects The island of Madagascar is predominantly populated by people broadly classified as belonging to the Malagasy ethno-linguistic group. This group is further subdivided

5917-405: The food on their plates, whereas women are required to use two separate spoons to fill their plates and to eat. Men are generally responsible for tilling the rice fields, obtaining food, gathering firewood and building the family home and furniture, and they engage in discussion and debate about public affairs. Women's tasks include growing crops, weeding the rice fields and harvesting and processing

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6014-603: The full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine 2020 figures (2021 est.) noun: Malagasy (singular and plural) adjective: Malagasy Malayo-Indonesian ( Merina and related Betsileo ), coastal ethnics (mixed African , Malayo - Indonesian , and Arab ancestry – Betsimisaraka , Tsimihety , Antaisaka , Sakalava ), French , Indian , Creole , Comorian , Chinese Malagasy (official, and national language), French (official). definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2018 est.) Betsimisaraka people Through

6111-488: The growing influence and presence of European and particularly French settlers, (slave traders), missionaries and merchants. The fractured Betsimisaraka kingdom was easily colonised in 1817 by Radama I , king of Imerina who ruled from its capital at Antananarivo in the Central Highlands . The subjugation of the Betsimisaraka in the 19th century left the population relatively impoverished; under colonisation by

6208-508: The hands of Merina families. Ethnic groups of Madagascar Demographic features of the population of Madagascar include population density , ethnicity , education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Madagascar 's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian and East African origin. Since the country's independence in 1960, three general census of population and dwellings (RGPH) have been conducted by

6305-434: The hearth and preparing meals. Similarly, women were traditionally expected to follow behind when walking with a man. Bezanozano men working as porters used to believe that if a woman passed in front of him while he worked, he would be injured the next time he attempted to carry a load. Most Bezanozano practice the veneration of ancestors ( razana ), who in ritual were sometimes referred to as zanahary (gods). They recognized

6402-422: The island, particularly including British and American pirates whose numbers dramatically increased from the 1680s to the 1720s along the coast from modern day Antsiranana in the north to Nosy Boraha and Foulpointe to the east. Intermarriage between these European pirates and the daughters of local chiefs produced a large mixed population termed zana-malata . Around 1700 the Tsikoa began uniting around

6499-425: The late 17th century, the various clans of the eastern coastal region were governed by chieftains who typically ruled over one or two villages. A zana-malata pirate named Ratsimilaho emerged to unite these clans under his rule in 1710. His reign lasted 50 years and established a sense of common identity and stability throughout the kingdom. But his successors gradually weakened this union, leaving it vulnerable to

6596-404: The late 18th century was the town of Ambatondrazaka . There were around 100,000 Bezanozano living in Madagascar in 2013. The Bezanozano inhabited the fertile forested land between the plains of Imerina to the west and the lowland coastal rainforest to the east in an area historically called Ankay. They lived in fortified villages governed by local chiefs. Their original source of unified identity

6693-506: The leading political party, PSD , sought to ensure equal participation of the descendants of Bezanozano andriana (nobles) and slaves while minimizing representation of the local Merina population. Following the 1972 rotaka (protests) that brought down the Tsiranana administration and ushered in the AREMA government of Didier Ratsiraka , the central authority preferred working with

6790-556: The living and the razana (ancestors); by 2020, only 4.5% of Malagasies exclusively practised folk religions and 85% were Christian (according to the Pew Research Center ). The Association of Religion Data Archives noted that in 2020, 58.1% of the population is Christian , 2.1% is Muslim and 39.2% practices traditional faiths, while 0.6% of the population is non-religious or adheres to other faiths. Madagascar's traditional religions tend to emphasize links between

6887-428: The living and the dead. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. This spiritual communion is celebrated by the Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana , or "turning over the dead". In this ritual, relatives' remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to

6984-503: The minds of many Merina that a stereotype formed that persists today conflating the name Bezanozano with andevo (the historic slave class). This policy had the result of strongly depopulating the Ankay. In the 1830s a Bezanozano rebellion against this forced labor disrupted trade to between the capital and the east coast until it was put down by the Merina army. The natural resources of Bezanozano territory were more systematically exploited under Merina rule, including timber and iron; iron ore

7081-404: The national statistics office INSTAT under the supervision of the ministry of economy. The first census in 1975 counted 7.4 million Malagasy people , the second one in 1993 censused 12.3 million citizens and the 18h May to 10 June 2018 census numbered 25 674 186 inhabitants. [1] The problem with population estimation in Madagascar is that data is very old and limited. The last population census

7178-423: The north, they are placed under outdoor shelters. While in mourning, women will unbraid their hair and stop wearing their akanjo , while men no longer wear a hat; the mourning period typically lasts two to four months depending on how closely related the individual was to the deceased. The ceremonial dance music style most closely associated with the tromba among the Betsimisaraka is called basesa and

7275-510: The northern and southern Betsimisaraka, many major aspects of their culture are similar. Major customs among the Betsimisaraka include sambatra (circumcision), folanaka (the birth of a tenth child), ritual sacrifice of zebu for the ancestors, and celebrating the inauguration of a newly constructed house. Marriage, death, birth, the New Year and Independence Day are also communally celebrated. The practice of tromba (ritual spirit possession)

7372-402: The politically and economically advantaged highlanders of the central plateaux and the people along the coast. For example, in the 1970s there was widespread opposition among coastal ethnics against the policy of "Malagasization" which intended to phase out the use of the French language in public life in favour of a more prominent position for the Malagasy language , whose orthography is based on

7469-478: The population of Madagascar and numbered over 1,500,000 in 2011. A sub-set of the population, the zana-malata , has partly European origins resulting from generations of intermarriage between the local Malagasy population and European pirates, sailors and traders who docked or settled along the eastern coast. Like the Sakalava to the west, the Betsimisaraka are composed of numerous ethnic sub-groups that formed

7566-649: The predominantly Catholic masses, considered to be underprivileged, and the predominantly Protestant Merina aristocrats, who tend to prevail in the civil service, business, and professions. Followers of Islam constitute approximately 3% of the population in 2022, according to the US Department of State; there are also small numbers of Hindus and Jews . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had more than 13,000 members in 42 congregations in Madagascar in 2013. A small community started practicing Judaism in 2010, and formally converted in 2016 with

7663-412: The principal livelihood for Bezanozano villagers, who grow rice, corn, beans and other staples; a practice specific to this region is vary verina , the growing of rice on a higher terrace and the growing of beans and corn on the terrace below it. The historic impact of Merina colonization of the Ankay region continues to be felt, with the majority of wealth and much of the most valuable land concentrated in

7760-552: The prosperity of the local population, who resisted by refusing to grow surplus crops that would only further enrich the outside traders. Others fled the settled life of their ancestral villages to take refuge in the forest in order to live outside Merina authority. Some of these formed into groups of bandits who plundered Merina trading parties along the east coast and mounted occasional raids further into Merina territory; these groups also periodically attacked Merina settlers, European missionaries, government outposts and churches. When

7857-464: The region had encouraged several other kingdoms to attempt to conquer this territory, but none were successful until King Andrianampoinimerina of neighboring Imerina (d. 1810), who allowed Randrianjomoina and the Bezanozano chieftains to retain their positions but required them to pay an annual tribute to him. The Bezanozano actively resisted Andrianampoinimerina's authority throughout his reign and refused to observe mourning customs upon his death. With

7954-407: The rice, fetching water, lighting the hearth fire and preparing daily meals, and weaving. Religious rites and customs are traditionally presided over by a tangalamena officiant. Betsimisaraka communities widely believe in various supernatural creatures, including ghosts ( angatra ), mermaids ( zazavavy an-drano ) and the imp-like kalamoro . Efforts to Christianize the local population began in

8051-550: The ritual sacrifice of zebu , and a patriarchal social structure. The groups are distinguished by linguistic sub-dialects and various fady (taboos), as well as certain funeral practices and other customs. The Betsimisaraka practice famadihana (reburial) and sambatra (circumcision) and believe in sorcery and a wide range of supernatural forces. Many taboos and folktales revolve around lemurs and crocodiles, both of which are common throughout Betsimisaraka territory. The Betsimisaraka constitute approximately 15 percent of

8148-496: The south to Antalaha in the north, including the island's main port at Toamasina and the major towns of Fénérive Est and Maroansetra . They are often subdivided into northern Betsimisaraka (Antavaratra) and southern Betsimisaraka (Antatsimo), separated by the Betanimena Betsimisaraka sub-clan (called the Tsikoa before around 1710). Until the beginning of the 18th century, the peoples who would constitute

8245-458: The stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed

8342-459: The tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor. In the festivities, they eat, drink, and literally dance with the dead. After one or two days of celebrating, they shower the body with gifts and rebury it. Malagasy Christians are roughly 50% Catholic and 50% Protestant (mainly Reformed Protestant Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) , Lutheran , and Anglican ) or Roman Catholic , but there are also smaller groups such as members of

8439-423: The traditional community leaders, who were typically Bezanozano elders. Gender roles in traditional Bezanozano families are strictly defined. Men are the active participants in discussions about public affairs, and are responsible for house construction, earning money to pay for basic family needs, and preparing the paddy fields for planting. Women are responsible for weaving, tending crops, collecting water, tending

8536-414: The turn of the 19th century and Europeans from the 1860s onward created competition for use of the ports traditionally under Betsimisaraka control, to such an extent that the local population was prohibited from trading to maximize profits for the Merina and Europeans. This severe economic constraint, coupled with the heavy Merina imposition of fanampoana (unpaid labor in lieu of taxes), severely undermined

8633-462: The words composing his name for use in regular conversation; anyone who spoke the forbidden words would be harshly punished or in some instances executed. Some Betsimisaraka, principally those living around Maroantsetra, practice the famadihana reburial ceremony, although in a simpler form than that practiced in the Highlands. Coffins are placed in tombs only in southern Betsimisaraka; in

8730-752: The worst human rights abuses, including execution by being thrown alive from airplanes. The country gained independence in 1960. It was led throughout the Second Republic (1975-1992) by Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , a Betsimisaraka. He was democratically elected president and again led the country from 1995 to 2001 during the Third Republic before being forced from power following contested 2001 presidential election by followers of Merina businessman and opposition leader Marc Ravalomanana . He remains an influential and controversial political figure in Madagascar. Ratsiraka's nephew, Roland Ratsiraka ,

8827-450: Was abundant in Bezanozano territory in part because the local population had never learned to smith it. Merina culture also became assimilated during the 19th century, introducing the cultivation of peanuts and beans and the construction of stone tombs and trano gasy houses . Following the French colonization of Madagascar in 1896, other innovations from Imerina were gradually introduced, like terraced irrigated paddy fields, ox carts and

8924-551: Was carried out in 1993, after an initial 1975 census. There was an attempt at a census in 2009, but this attempt ultimately failed due to political instability. Therefore, the demographic situation is inferred but reliability of any estimates from any source has a large margin of error. According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects the total population was 28,915,653 in 2021, compared to only 4,084,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below

9021-462: Was gained by engaging in slave raids in the communities in the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina , which was then in the throes of a destabilizing civil war. The town of Moramanga became a major hub of Bezanozano trade. The population of slaves owned by the Bezanozano had grown so large by the mid-18th century that in 1768 a slave rebellion erupted; the Bezanozano solicited the aid of Europeans to put it down. To further strengthen their economic position,

9118-509: Was one of the most powerful kings of Madagascar. By the time of his death in 1754, his moderate and stabilizing rule had provided nearly forty years of unity among the diverse clans within the Betsimisaraka political union. He also allied the Betsimisaraka with the other most powerful kingdom of the time, the Sakalava of the west coast, through marriage with Matave, the only daughter of Iboina king Andrianbaba. Ratsimilaho's son Zanahary succeeded him in 1755. A despotic leader, Zanahary launched

9215-411: Was probably considered taboo in many Bezanozano villages, where it may not be killed or eaten, must be freed if trapped, and must be buried with the same rites as a person. The Bezanozano traditionally bury their dead in stone tombs. Like the Merina, they practice the famadihana reburial ceremony. Funerals are celebrated by drinking large quantities of rum. The Betatoato is a dance that is unique to

9312-534: Was probably uninhabited prior to Austronesian settlement in the early centuries AD. Austronesian (particularly Malay ) features are most predominant in the central highlands peoples, while coastal peoples are phenotypically more East African , sometimes with minor Arab, Somali, European and Indian admixtures. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1,500,000) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). Malagasy society has long been polarized between

9409-538: Was the worship of 11 protective sampy (idols) said to have been brought from Sakalava territory. According to popular belief, the Bezanozano may be descendants of the island's earliest inhabitants, the Vazimba . Oral history relates that the Bezanozano historically lived in small communities governed collectively by village elders. Matters of justice were handled collectively through public deliberation to reach consensus. Bezanozano society reached its golden age in

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