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44-548: There are 77 rock-cut caves at the site. Most have rectangular spaces with round arch ceilings often divided into four sections, each with a mural of the Buddha . The effect is of the entire ceiling covered with hundreds of Buddha murals. Some murals show a large Buddha surrounded by other figures, including Turks, Indians, and Europeans. The quality of the murals varies with some being artistically naive while others are masterpieces of religious art. The murals that best represent

88-641: A bowl with what he assumed were bags of gold dust , wore a hat that he found reminiscent of the headgear of Sasanian Persian princes . The Buddhist Uyghurs of the Kingdom of Qocho and Turfan were converted to Islam by conquest during a ghazat (holy war) at the hands of the Muslim Chagatai Khanate ruler Khizr Khoja (r. 1389–1399). After being converted to Islam, the descendants of the previously Buddhist Uyghurs in Turfan failed to retain

132-525: A follow-up to the second expedition). In the middle of 1906 Le Coq had to return home due to illness. Grünwedel and Bartus continued the work and covered the oases to the west of Turfan, including Kizil and its widespread complexes of Buddhist caves. The route followed was initially from Kashgar to Tumshuk and then from Kizil to Kucha to Kumtura and further along Shorchuk—Turfan Oasis—Ürümqi—Hami—Toyuk and back. The collections packed in 118 crates were paintings of grottoes from temples and Buddhist texts. Reports of

176-536: A former director at the Ethnological Museum of Berlin , and organized by Albert von Le Coq . Theodor Bartus , who was a technical member of the museum staff and was in charge of extricating paintings found during the expeditions from cave walls and ruins, accompanied all four expeditions. Both expedition leaders. Grünwedel and Le Coq, returned to Berlin with thousands of paintings and other art objects, as well as more than 40,000 fragments of text. In 1902,

220-807: A genetic study of early Uyghur remains from the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia, the Uyghurs were actually predominantly West Eurasian, being modelled as genetically similar to the Iranian Alan and Sarmatian people, with significant East Eurasian admixture. The east–west admixture in the Uyghur Khaganate was said to have taken place around the year 500 AD. Buddhist Uyghurs created the Bezeklik murals. However, Peter B. Golden writes that

264-549: A similar type, but smaller in scale. Excellent examples are to be found near Dalyan , a town in Muğla Province, along the sheer cliffs that faces a river. Since these served as tombs rather than as religious sites, the interiors were usually small and unassuming. The ancient Etruscans of central Italy also left an important legacy of rock-cut architecture, mostly tombs, as those near the cities of Tarquinia and Vulci . The creation of rock-cut tombs in ancient Israel began in

308-621: A single piece of material. Monolithic architecture is often rock-cut, as in the Ellora Kailasanathar Temple , but monolithic structures may also be cast of artificial material, such as concrete . The largest monolithic statue in the world, the Gommateshwara statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka , was carved in 983 CE from a single block of granite. Some rock-cut architecture

352-465: A span of hundreds of years prior to the 5th century CE. Emphasis here was more on the interiors than the exteriors. Another extensive site of rock-cut architecture is in Lalibela , a town in northern Ethiopia . The area contains numerous Orthodox churches in three dimensions, as at Ellora, that were carved out of the rock. These structures, which date from the 12th and 13th centuries CE and which are

396-521: Is excavated entirely in chambers under the surface of relatively level rock. This is especially common in rock-cut tombs . Excavations instead made into the side of a cliff or steep slope can feature an impressive facade, as in Lycian tombs, Petra , and the Ajanta Caves . The most laborious and imposing rock-cut architecture is the excavation of tall free-standing monolithic structures entirely below

440-470: Is the archaeological site to which expeditions were mounted by Germans to explore and collect precious art objects and texts written in many languages and scripts. International attention was first drawn to Turfan by Sven Hedin (1865-1952), to European and Japanese archaeologists, as a potential and promising site in Central Asia for field explorations for archaeological finds. He could follow up

484-510: The c.  3,000 B.C. Dwarfie Stane on the Orkney island of Hoy, were cut directly from the rock, rather than constructed from stone blocks. Alteration of naturally formed caverns, although distinct from completely carved structures in the strict sense, date back to the neolithic period on several Mediterranean islands e.g. Malta ( Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni ), Sardinia (Anghelu Ruju, built between 3,000 and 1,500 BCE) and others. During

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528-628: The 19th Dynasty (ca. 1280 BCE), and consists of a monumentally scaled facade carved out of the cliff and a set of interior chambers that form its sanctuary. In the 8th century, the Phrygians started some of the earliest rock-cut monuments, such as the Midas monument (700 BCE), dedicated to the famous Phrygian king Midas . In the 5th century BCE, the Lycians , who inhabited southern Anatolia (now Turkey ) built hundreds of rock-cut tombs of

572-823: The Bronze Age , Nubian ancestors of the Kingdom of Kush built speos between 3700 and 3250 BCE. This greatly influenced the architecture of the New kingdom . Large-scale rock-cut structures were built in Ancient Egypt . Among these monuments was the Great Temple of Ramesses II , known as Abu Simbel , located along the Nile in Nubia , near the borders of Sudan about 300 kilometers from Aswan in Egypt . It dates from about

616-518: The Buddhist monks and consisted mostly of multi-storey buildings carved into the mountain face to contain living and sleeping quarters, kitchens, and monastic spaces. Some of these monastic caves had shrines in them to the Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints. As time progressed, the interiors became more elaborate and systematized; surfaces were often decorated with paintings, such as those at Ajanta . At

660-536: The Nabataean city of Petra , in modern Jordan , extended the Western Asian tradition, carving their temples and tombs into the yellowish-orange rock that defines the canyons and gullies of the region. These structures, dating from 1st century BCE to about 2nd century CE, are particularly important in the history of architecture given their experimental forms. Here too, because the structures served as tombs,

704-584: The 8th-century BCE and continued through the Byzantine period. The Tomb of Absalom was constructed in the 1st century CE in the Kidron Valley of Jerusalem . Rock-cut architecture occupies a particularly important place in the history of Indian Architecture. The earliest instances of Indian rock-cut architecture , the Barabar caves , date from about the 3rd to the 2nd century BCE. They were built by

748-664: The Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves are the large-sized murals, which were given the name the "Praṇidhi Scene", paintings depicting Sakyamuni ’s "promise" or "praṇidhi" from his past life. James A. Millward described the original Uyghurs as physically Mongoloid , giving as an example the images in Bezeklik at temple 9 of the Uyghur patrons, until they began to mix with the Tarim Basin's original Indo-European Tocharian inhabitants. However, according to

792-562: The Buddha . The paintings of Bezeklik, while having a small amount of Indian influence , is primarily influenced by Chinese and Iranian styles , particularly Sasanian Persian landscape painting. Albert von Le Coq was the first to study the murals and published his findings in 1913. He noted how in Scene 14 from Temple 9 one of the West Eurasian-looking figures with green eyes, wearing a green fur-trimmed coat and presenting

836-548: The East ) church near ancient Khocho (Qara-khoja or Gaochang ), a ruined ancient city, built of mud, 30 km (19 mi) east of Turfan. Turfan (also Uighur Turpan, Chin. Tulufan) is in Xinjiang (Chinese Turkestan) on the northern Silk Road . It has an area of 170 km (66 sq mi) between 42° and 43° north latitude and between 88° and 90° east longitude in a depression 154 m (505 ft) below sea level. This

880-600: The Ethnological Museum was bombed seven times in Allied bombing raids, destroying the larger wall murals which had been cemented into place and could not be moved; 28 of the finest paintings were totally destroyed. Smaller pieces were hidden in bunkers and coal mines at the outbreak of war and survived the bombings. When the Russians arrived in 1945 they looted at least 10 crates of treasures that they discovered in

924-749: The German expeditions were initially kept at the Indian Department of the Ethnological Museum of Berlin ( Ethnologisches Museum Berlin ), then shifted in 1963 to the Museum of Indian Art ( Museum für Indische Kunst ) in Dahlem, Berlin and finally combined into a single location at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities ( Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften , BBAW), since 1992. During World War II ,

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968-622: The Königliche Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin , by James Simon (benefactor of museums), Krupp house, the Prussian Government and an “Ethnologisches Hilfskomitee.” The first Expedition from December, 1902 to April 1903, led by Prof. A. Grünwedel along with Dr. G. Huth and Theodor Bartus, followed the route from Yining to Ürümqi to Turfan Oasis when paintings, statues and manuscripts were found and carted in 46 crates, and

1012-587: The Uyghurs not only adopted the writing system and religious faiths of the Indo-European Sogdians , such as Manichaeism , Buddhism , and Christianity , but also looked to the Sogdians as "mentors" while gradually replacing them in their roles as Silk Road traders and purveyors of culture. Indeed, Sogdians wearing silk robes are seen in the praṇidhi scenes of Bezeklik murals, particularly Scene 6 from Temple 9 showing Sogdian donors to

1056-780: The ancient and early medieval frescoes in such locations as Bamyan Caves in Afghanistan with the most ancient known oil paintings in the world from 8th century CE, Ajanta Caves in India with well preserved tempera paintings from 2nd century BCE, Christian frescoes on Churches of Göreme, Turkey and numerous other monuments in Asia, Europe and Africa. German Turfan expeditions The German Turfan expeditions were conducted between 1902 and 1914. The four expeditions to Turfan in Xinjiang , China , were initiated by Albert Grünwedel ,

1100-467: The beginning of the 7th century Hindu rock-cut temples began to be constructed at Ellora. Unlike most previous examples of rock-cut architecture which consisted of a facade plus an interior, these temples were complete three-dimensional buildings created by carving away the hillside. They required several generations of planning and coordination to complete. Other major examples of rock-cut architecture in India are at Ajanta and Pataleshwar . Artisans in

1144-531: The eyes and mouths were often gouged out due to the local belief that the figures may otherwise come to life at night. Michael Dillon considered Bezeklik's Thousand Buddha Caves is an example of the religiously motivated iconoclasm against the depiction of religious and human figures. Pieces of murals were also broken off for use as fertilizer by the locals. During the late nineteen and early twentieth century, European and Japanese explorers found intact murals buried in sand, and many were removed and dispersed around

1188-561: The facade or interior of traditional architectural forms. Interiors were usually carved out by starting at the roof of the planned space and then working downward. This technique prevents stones falling on workers below. The three main uses of rock-cut architecture were temples (like those in India ), tombs , and cave dwellings (like those in Cappadocia ). A related term, monolithic architecture , refers to free-standing structures made of

1232-470: The first research team financed largely by Friedrich Krupp , the arms manufacturer, left for Turfan and returned a year later with 46 crates full of treasures. Kaiser Wilhelm II was enthusiastic and helped finance the second expedition along with Krupp. The third was financed by means of the Ministry of Culture. The fourth expedition under Le Coq was dogged by many difficulties and was finally cut short by

1276-647: The interiors were rather perfunctory. In Petra one even finds a theater where the seats are cut out of the rock. The technological skills associated with making these complex structures moved into China along the trade routes. The Longmen Grottoes , the Mogao Caves , and the Yungang Grottoes consist of hundreds of caves many with statues of Buddha in them. Most were built between 460 and 525 CE. There are extensive rock-cut buildings, including houses and churches in Cappadocia , Turkey. They were built over

1320-504: The last significant examples of this architectural form, ranks as among the most magnificent examples of rock-cut architecture in the world, with both interior and exterior brought to fruition. Ancient rock cut tombs, temples and monasteries often have been adorned with frescoes and reliefs. The high resistance of natural cliff, skilled use of plaster and constant microclimate often have helped to preserve this art in better condition than in conventional buildings. Such exceptional examples are

1364-426: The memory of their ancestral legacy and falsely believed that the "infidel Kalmuks" ( Dzungars ) were the ones who built Buddhist monuments in their area. The murals at Bezeklik have suffered considerable damage. Many of the temples were damaged by the local Muslim population whose religion proscribed figurative images of sentient beings; all statues were destroyed, some paintings defaced, and others smeared with mud,

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1408-469: The outbreak of World War I in 1914. Many important finds were made, especially on the second expedition, at a number of sites along the ancient northern route around the Taklamakan desert. They discovered important documents and works of art (including a magnificent wall-painting of a Manichaean bishop [mozhak], previously mistakenly identified as Mani ) and the remains of a Christian ( Church of

1452-723: The route from Kashgar to Kucha, then Kizil to Kirish, followed by Simsim to Kumtura and then from Tumshuk to Kashgar returned from there to Berlin and completed the expedition shortly before the outbreak of the First World War . Finds included paintings and texts in Sakan and Sanskrit. The finds packed in 156 crates, was the largest collection in a single expedition. Le Coq published his report of his expedition in Von Land und Leuten in Ostturkistan, in 1928. The collections from

1496-483: The second and third expeditions were published as "Gründwedel's Altbuddhistische Kultstätten in Chinesisch-Turkistan" (1912) and Le Coq's book of Auf Hellas Spuren in Ostturkistan (1926). The Fourth Expedition (March 31, 1913 - March 13, 1914) was also funded by the state (60,000 Marks given by the emperor and by private benefactors). It was again led by Le Coq along with Theodor Bartus. They followed

1540-458: The second expedition, along with Theodor Bartus as his associate, followed the route from Ürümqi to Turfan Oasis (from November 1904 to August 1905). The third Expedition merged with this expedition (from Aug. 1905) and the finds covered mostly paintings (Bezeklik) but very few texts. It was carted to Berlin in 105 crates. The Third Expedition was also funded by the state. It was undertaken under Albert Grünwedel from December 1905 to April 1907 (as

1584-630: The surface level of the surrounding rock, in a large excavated hole around the structure. Ellora in India and the Zagwe -built Lalibela in Ethiopia provide some of the most famous examples of such structures. Many parts of the world feature rock reliefs , relief sculptures carved into rock faces, often outside caves. Ancient monuments of rock-cut architecture are widespread in several regions of world. A small number of Neolithic tombs in Europe, such as

1628-661: The work in later years during his last expeditions between 1928 and 1935. His collections of that period are in the Stockholm Ethnographical Museum . After his first suggestion to the archeologist about the archaeological richness of the Turfan site, many Russian expeditions were mounted from September 27 to November 21, 1879 right up to 1914–1915, Finnish expeditions from 1906 to 1908, by Japan between July 1908 and June 1914, and also other explorers from Great Britain , France and America; and from 1928 Chinese archaeological campaigns continued

1672-529: The work of the foreign expeditions. German expeditions from 1902 and 1914 not only to Turfan but also other sites such as Kucha, Qarashahr and Tumshuq [Tumšuq] were most fruitful. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Germans were impressed by the discoveries and finds reported by Europeans traveling through the Silk Roads and the exposition made at the twelfth international Congress of Orientalists in Rome in

1716-689: The world . Some of the best-preserved murals were removed by German explorer Albert von Le Coq and sent to Germany. Large pieces such as those showing the Praṇidhi scene were permanently fixed to walls in the Museum of Ethnology in Berlin. During the Second World War they could not be removed for safekeeping and were thus destroyed when the museum was caught in the bombing of Berlin by the Allies . Other pieces may now be found in various museums around

1760-814: The world, such as the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Tokyo National Museum in Japan, the British Museum in London, and the national museums of Korea and India . A digital recreation of the Bezeklik murals removed by explorers was shown in Japan. Rock-cut architecture Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. Intensely laborious when using ancient tools and methods, rock-cut architecture

1804-406: The year 1899 prompted them to launch their own expeditions to the area. The finds of the four expeditions (packed and carted to Germany initially) were murals, other artefacts and about 40,000 pieces of texts. The four German expeditions covered Turfan but also Kucha, Qarashahr and Tumshuq [Tumšuq]. The expeditions were: The financing for the expedition involved 36,000 Marks which was provided by

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1848-616: The zoological objects in plus 13 crates. The detailed account of the expedition was published in Grünwedel's book titled "Bericht über archäologische Arbeiten in Idikutschari und Umgebung im Winter 1902-1903", Abhandlungen der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, I. Kl., XXIV. Bd., München 1906. Impressed with the sensational accomplishments of the first expedition, Emperor Wilhelm II donated 32,000 Marks from his private purse (the “Allerhöchste Dispositionsfonds”) which

1892-433: Was presumably combined with quarrying the rock for use elsewhere. In India and China, the terms cave and cavern are often applied to this form of man-made architecture, but caves and caverns that began in natural form are not considered to be rock-cut architecture even if extensively modified. Although rock-cut structures differ from traditionally built structures in many ways, many rock-cut structures are made to replicate

1936-423: Was supplemented by 10,000 Marks from other donors. On account of Wilhelm II's donation as King of Prussia , this expedition was also named the "First Royal Prussian Turfan expedition". Since Grünwedel who was very enthusiastic about also leading the second expedition could not make it due to ill health, instead Dr. Albert von Le Coq (1860-1930) of the “Hilfsarbeiter bei dem Königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde”, headed

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