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129-492: The Bedford OB was a bus chassis manufactured by Bedford from 1939. The Bedford OB was designed as a successor to the Bedford WTB. It had a wheelbase of 14 feet 6 inches (4.42 m), and was a semi-forward control model, designed to carry 26 to 29-passenger bodywork. It was fitted with a 28 RAC tax horsepower petrol engine , a four-speed manual gearbox and a fully floating rear axle . The brakes were of

258-439: A target audience . Marketers tend to treat brands as more than the difference between the actual cost of a product and its selling price; rather brands represent the sum of all valuable qualities of a product to the consumer and are often treated as the total investment in brand building activities including marketing communications. Consumers may look on branding as an aspect of products or services, as it often serves to denote

387-469: A titulus pictus . The inscription typically specified information such as place of origin, destination, type of product and occasionally quality claims or the name of the manufacturer. Roman marks or inscriptions were applied to a very wide variety of goods, including, pots, ceramics, amphorae (storage/shipping containers) and on factory-produced oil-lamps. Carbonized loaves of bread , found at Herculaneum , indicate that some bakers stamped their bread with

516-705: A 12 cwt light delivery van, designated as the WS and VYC models respectively. Bedford continued to develop its share of the light transport market, with the introduction of the 8 cwt ASYC and ASXC vans, a close derivative of the Vauxhall Light Six car. The AS series of vans continued in production until 1939. Bedford introduced the 3 ton WT series in November 1933. Again, a short wheelbase WHT (9 feet 3 inches (2,820 mm)), or long wheelbase WLG (13 feet 1 inch (3,990 mm)) version

645-629: A UK Ministry of Defence contract to produce the standard 4–ton 4x4 GS (general service) truck for the British forces – although in extensive tests the Bedford candidate had been the equal of the Leyland (later Leyland DAF ) candidate, and the British Army expressed a preference to continue the trusted relationship with Bedford trucks. The reasons for this decision were seen by many as political, as

774-504: A big seller in India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand and Africa, as well as in the UK. The SB chassis was also used as a basis for specialised vehicles, such as mobile libraries, fire engines, and civil defence control units. The largest fleet of SB buses in the world belonged to New Zealand Railways Road Services , with 1,280 SB buses built between 1954 and 1981. The Bedford TK range replaced

903-636: A brand may recognize that advertising touchpoints are most effective during the pre-purchase experience stage therefore they may target their advertisements to new customers rather than to existing customers. Overall, a brand has the ability to strengthen brand equity by using IMC branding communications through touchpoints. Brand communication is important in ensuring brand success in the business world and refers to how businesses transmit their brand messages, characteristics and attributes to their consumers . One method of brand communication that companies can exploit involves electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM). eWOM

1032-400: A brand may showcase its primary attribute as environmental friendliness. However, a brand's attributes alone are not enough to persuade a customer into purchasing the product. These attributes must be communicated through benefits , which are more emotional translations. If a brand's attribute is being environmentally friendly, customers will receive the benefit of feeling that they are helping

1161-403: A brand name is a "memory heuristic": a convenient way to remember preferred product choices. A brand name is not to be confused with a trademark which refers to the brand name or part of a brand that is legally protected. For example, Coca-Cola not only protects the brand name, Coca-Cola , but also protects the distinctive Spencerian script and the contoured shape of the bottle. Brand identity

1290-463: A brand with consumers. For example, a jingle or background music can have a positive effect on brand recognition, purchasing behaviour and brand recall. Therefore, when looking to communicate a brand with chosen consumers, companies should investigate a channel of communication that is most suitable for their short-term and long-term aims and should choose a method of communication that is most likely to reach their target consumers. The match-up between

1419-478: A brand, the more they trusted the brand. This suggests that a company could look to employ a social-media campaign to gain consumer trust and loyalty as well as in the pursuit of communicating brand messages. McKee (2014) also looked into brand communication and states that when communicating a brand, a company should look to simplify its message as this will lead to more value being portrayed as well as an increased chance of target consumers recalling and recognizing

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1548-518: A broad range of goods. In 1266, makers' marks on bread became compulsory in England. The Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind stamps , hallmarks , and silver-makers' marks —all types of brand—became widely used across Europe during this period. Hallmarks, although known from the 4th-century, especially in Byzantium, only came into general use during

1677-412: A category is differentiated from its competing brands, and thus the brand helps customers & potential customers understand which brand satisfies their needs. Thus, the brand offers the customer a short-cut to understanding the different product or service offerings that make up a particular category. Brand awareness is a key step in the customer's purchase decision process, since some kind of awareness

1806-417: A certain attractive quality or characteristic (see also brand promise). From the perspective of brand owners, branded products or services can command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of the products has no associated branding (such as a generic , store-branded product), potential purchasers may often select the more expensive branded product on the basis of the perceived quality of

1935-429: A classic bullnose. The ash framework was reinforced with steel, and the floor made from hardwood with softwood tongued and grooved boarding, with the exception of the cab area which was finished with alloy chequerplate. Seating capacity was normally 29 with overhead luggage racks provided for passengers, whilst the rear luggage boot was also used to store the spare wheel. The price of a complete coach, including finishing in

2064-1021: A corporation hopes to accomplish, and to explain why customers should choose one brand over its competitors. Brand personality refers to "the set of human personality traits that are both applicable to and relevant for brands." Marketers and consumer researchers often argue that brands can be imbued with human-like characteristics which resonate with potential consumers. Such personality traits can assist marketers to create unique, brands that are differentiated from rival brands. Aaker conceptualized brand personality as consisting of five broad dimensions, namely: sincerity (down-to-earth, honest, wholesome, and cheerful), excitement (daring, spirited, imaginative, and up to date), competence (reliable, intelligent, and successful), sophistication (glamorous, upper class, charming), and ruggedness (outdoorsy and tough). Subsequent research studies have suggested that Aaker's dimensions of brand personality are relatively stable across different industries, market segments and over time. Much of

2193-472: A different stage in a customer's cognitive ability to address the brand in a given circumstance. Marketers typically identify two distinct types of brand awareness; namely brand recall (also known as unaided recall or occasionally spontaneous recall ) and brand recognition (also known as aided brand recall ). These types of awareness operate in entirely different ways with important implications for marketing strategy and advertising. Brand recognition

2322-681: A gathering was held at the Vauxhall Heritage Centre in Luton with OBs on display, before making a road run to Bletchley Park . To celebrate the 75th anniversary, a gathering was held at Luton on 16/17 August 2014, with a run to the Millbrook Proving Ground . Several OBs in Australia and New Zealand have also been preserved. Bedford Vehicles Bedford Vehicles , usually shortened to just Bedford ,

2451-462: A given category, when prompted with a brand name, a larger number of consumers are typically able to recognize it. Brand recognition is most successful when people can elicit recognition without being explicitly exposed to the company's name, but rather through visual signifiers like logos, slogans, and colors. For example, Disney successfully branded its particular script font (originally created for Walt Disney's "signature" logo ), which it used in

2580-477: A hot branding iron . If a person stole any of the cattle, anyone else who saw the symbol could deduce the actual owner. The term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that "brand" now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Over time, the practice of branding objects extended to a broader range of packaging and goods offered for sale including oil , wine , cosmetics , and fish sauce and, in

2709-507: A low-involvement purchasing decision. Brand recognition is often the mode of brand awareness that operates in retail shopping environments. When presented with a product at the point-of-sale, or after viewing its visual packaging, consumers are able to recognize the brand and may be able to associate it with attributes or meanings acquired through exposure to promotion or word-of-mouth referrals. In contrast to brand recall, where few consumers are able to spontaneously recall brand names within

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2838-482: A number of bus chassis, its low price catering for the cheaper end of the coach market. During the 1970s, the Bedford HA derived BTV (Basic Transport Vehicle) was produced in many countries and sold under different names such as "Compadre" (Honduras), "Chato" (Guatemala), "Cherito" (El Salvador), "Amigo" (Costa Rica), and "Pinolero" (Nicaragua). The TK/KM/MK range remained the mainstay of production throughout

2967-399: A receiver, it runs the risk of the receiver incorrectly interpreting the message. Therefore, a brand should use appropriate communication channels to positively "…affect how the psychological and physical aspects of a brand are perceived". In order for brands to effectively communicate to customers, marketers must "…consider all touch point |s, or sources of contact, that a customer has with

3096-583: A short bonnet with the rear of the engine protruding into the cab. Engines were the Vauxhall-based 1,508 cubic centimetres (92.0  cu in ) OHV in-line four petrol engine, with the option of a Perkins 4/99 or 4/108 diesel engine later on. Performance was adequate for the time, a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h) being attainable with the petrol engine, and offering fuel economy of 25 miles per imperial gallon (11 L/100 km; 21 mpg ‑US ). The van initially featured

3225-505: A three-speed column gearchange, changing later on to a four-speed column change. The CA was a huge seller both at home and in various overseas markets. The standard panel van was available in short- and long-wheelbase forms, and was also sold as chassis cab / chassis cowl, and became a popular basis for ice-cream vans, ambulances and camper vans. Known affectionately as "the Tilley", the CA enjoyed

3354-414: A trademark from the late 1870s, with great success. Pears' soap , Campbell's soup , Coca-Cola , Juicy Fruit chewing gum and Aunt Jemima pancake mix were also among the first products to be "branded" in an effort to increase the consumer's familiarity with the product's merits. Other brands which date from that era, such as Ben's Original rice and Kellogg's breakfast cereal, furnish illustrations of

3483-407: A trademark in the form of a 'White Rabbit", which signified good luck and was particularly relevant to women, who were the primary purchasers. Details in the image show a white rabbit crushing herbs, and text includes advice to shoppers to look for the stone white rabbit in front of the maker's shop. In ancient Rome , a commercial brand or inscription applied to objects offered for sale was known as

3612-534: A two-colour livery, was £1,314.10s for a 27-seater, and £1,325.10s for a twenty nine seater. Geared to reach speeds of at least 40 miles per hour (64 km/h), which was fast for its day, the OB is remembered by many for its characteristic gearbox whine. The Bedford "O" type lorry chassis was introduced in August 1939, with a coach-chassis version named the "OB". Duple Coachbuilders modified their 'Hendonian' body to fit

3741-461: A very long production span, with only minor tweaks throughout its life, including the replacement of the two piece windscreen of earlier models with a single sheet. Production ended in 1969. The CA was replaced by the CF , a highly redesigned vehicle, albeit architecturally similar, but rather larger, using new overhead camshaft (OHC) engines, which was to have a much harder time proving itself thanks to

3870-509: A visual or verbal cue. For example, when looking to satisfy a category need such as a toilet paper, the customer would firstly be presented with multiple brands to choose from. Once the customer is visually or verbally faced with a brand, they may remember being introduced to it before. When given a cue, consumers able to retrieve the memory node associated with the brand exhibit brand recognition. Often, this form of brand awareness assists customers in choosing one brand over another when faced with

3999-413: Is a brand's personality . Quite literally, one can easily describe a successful brand identity as if it were a person. This form of brand identity has proven to be the most advantageous in maintaining long-lasting relationships with consumers, as it gives them a sense of personal interaction with the brand Collectively, all four forms of brand identification help to deliver a powerful meaning behind what

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4128-420: Is a collection of individual components, such as a name, a design, a set of images, a slogan, a vision, writing style, a particular font or a symbol etc. which sets the brand aside from others. For a company to exude a strong sense of brand identity, it must have an in-depth understanding of its target market, competitors and the surrounding business environment. Brand identity includes both the core identity and

4257-403: Is a fundamental asset to a brand's equity , the worth of a brand's identity would become obsolete without ongoing brand communication. Integrated marketing communications (IMC) relates to how a brand transmits a clear consistent message to its stakeholders . Five key components comprise IMC: The effectiveness of a brand's communication is determined by how accurately the customer perceives

4386-433: Is a management technique that ascribes a monetary value to a brand. The word brand , originally meaning a burning piece of wood, comes from a Middle English brand , meaning "torch", from an Old English brand . It became to also mean the mark from burning with a branding iron. Branding and labeling have an ancient history. Branding probably began with the practice of branding livestock to deter theft. Images of

4515-469: Is a precondition to purchasing. That is, customers will not consider a brand if they are not aware of it. Brand awareness is a key component in understanding the effectiveness both of a brand's identity and of its communication methods. Successful brands are those that consistently generate a high level of brand awareness, as this can be the pivotal factor in securing customer transactions. Various forms of brand awareness can be identified. Each form reflects

4644-410: Is a relatively new approach [Phelps et al., 2004] identified to communicate with consumers. One popular method of eWOM involves social networking sites (SNSs) such as Twitter . A study found that consumers classed their relationship with a brand as closer if that brand was active on a specific social media site (Twitter). Research further found that the more consumers "retweeted" and communicated with

4773-440: Is among a few remaining forms of product differentiation . Brand equity is the measurable totality of a brand's worth and is validated by observing the effectiveness of these branding components. When a customer is familiar with a brand or favors it incomparably over its competitors, a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Brand owners manage their brands carefully to create shareholder value . Brand valuation

4902-442: Is one of the initial phases of brand awareness and validates whether or not a customer remembers being pre-exposed to the brand. Brand recognition (also known as aided brand recall ) refers to consumers' ability to correctly differentiate a brand when they come into contact with it. This does not necessarily require consumers to identify or recall the brand name. When customers experience brand recognition, they are triggered by either

5031-406: Is stronger than brand recognition, as the brand must be firmly cemented in the consumer's memory to enable unassisted remembrance. This gives the company huge advantage over its competitors because the customer is already willing to buy or at least know the company offering available in the market. Thus, brand recall is a confirmation that previous branding touchpoints have successfully fermented in

5160-564: Is the herbal paste known as chyawanprash , consumed for its purported health benefits and attributed to a revered rishi (or seer) named Chyawan. One well-documented early example of a highly developed brand is that of White Rabbit sewing needles, dating from China's Song dynasty (960 to 1127 CE). A copper printing plate used to print posters contained a message which roughly translates as: "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop: We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time." The plate also includes

5289-662: The Auxiliary Fire Service until 1968, then until 2004 over 1,000 were held in reserve by the Home Office for use in the event of fire-service industrial action or other serious emergencies. They were disposed of by the Home Office in 2005. Several have found new homes in African countries that lack a developed fire-fighting service, such as Kenya . The C series of 1957 was a forward-control derivative of

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5418-654: The GPO . It was replaced by the Vauxhall Astra -based "Astravan" and the later high-roof "Astramax" variant which were later rebranded as Vauxhalls. The CF van was facelifted in 1982 and was given Opel engines and continued until 1986. In 1985, the IBC Vehicles venture was founded which spawned the Suzuki Carry based Bedford Rascal microvan and Isuzu Fargo based Bedford Midi van range – later to be called

5547-858: The Midi , which was sold for a few years as the Bedford Seta (in Portugal). In 1998, GM bought Isuzu out of the IBC partnership. The plant now operates as GMM Luton, and at first built the Renault Trafic which was badge engineered as a Vivaro under the Vauxhall and Opel marques, currently it builds a licensed version of the Citroën Jumpy . The Bedford trucks site in Dunstable and business

5676-784: The Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE); large numbers of seals survive from the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley (3,300–1,300 BCE) where the local community depended heavily on trade; cylinder seals came into use in Ur in Mesopotamia in around 3,000 BCE, and facilitated the labelling of goods and property; and the use of maker's marks on pottery was commonplace in both ancient Greece and Rome. Identity marks, such as stamps on ceramics, were also used in ancient Egypt. Diana Twede has argued that

5805-600: The TA series, the new range were mechanically very similar to their predecessors, but featured a new Chevrolet-inspired cab. The 'T' designation meant "truck", so the range is generally referred to as the A series. Numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5; as in A2, etc., identified the weight rating. A factory-fitted Perkins diesel engine was an option. The TA (A) series was updated in 1957, and became the TJ, or J series. The Bedford TJ normal control light truck

5934-407: The vacuum servo-assisted hydraulic type. Although only 73 were built prior to the cessation of production due to World War II , it reappeared in a largely unchanged form at the end of the war, continuing in production until 1951. A total of 12,766 were produced, making it one of the most popular buses of its type ever. Bedford co-developed with Duple the "Vista" coachwork for the OB, fronted by

6063-481: The "consumer packaging functions of protection, utility and communication have been necessary whenever packages were the object of transactions". She has shown that amphorae used in Mediterranean trade between 1,500 and 500 BCE exhibited a wide variety of shapes and markings, which consumers used to glean information about the type of goods and the quality. The systematic use of stamped labels dates from around

6192-484: The "cool" factor. This began the modern practice now known as branding , where the consumers buy the brand instead of the product and rely on the brand name instead of a retailer's recommendation. The process of giving a brand "human" characteristics represented, at least in part, a response to consumer concerns about mass-produced goods. The Quaker Oats Company began using the image of the Quaker Man in place of

6321-400: The "…potential to add positive – or suppress negative – associations to the brand's equity" Thus, a brand's IMC should cohesively deliver positive messages through appropriate touch points associated with its target market. One methodology involves using sensory stimuli touch points to activate customer emotion. For example, if a brand consistently uses a pleasant smell as a primary touchpoint,

6450-619: The 1960s and 1970s, but with little serious product investment the range became increasingly outdated. In 1982, the TL range was introduced almost completely replacing the TK, although its military equivalents continued in production for the UK Ministry of Defence . In reality a long overdue update of the TK, the TL was never as popular as the model range it succeeded. This was largely due to more modern products offered by other companies (increasingly from

6579-466: The 1st century CE. The use of hallmarks , a type of brand, on precious metals dates to around the 4th century CE. A series of five marks occurs on Byzantine silver dating from this period. Some of the earliest use of maker's marks, dating to about 1,300 BCE, have been found in India. The oldest generic brand in continuous use, known in India since the Vedic period ( c.  1100 BCE to 500 BCE),

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6708-406: The 21st century, extends even further into services (such as legal , financial and medical ), political parties and people 's stage names. In the modern era, the concept of branding has expanded to include deployment by a manager of the marketing and communication techniques and tools that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aiming to create a lasting impression in

6837-606: The 6th century BCE. A vase manufactured around 490 BCE bears the inscription " Sophilos painted me", indicating that the object was both fabricated and painted by a single potter. Branding may have been necessary to support the extensive trade in such pots. For example, 3rd-century Gaulish pots bearing the names of well-known potters and the place of manufacture (such as Attianus of Lezoux , Tetturo of Lezoux and Cinnamus of Vichy ) have been found as far away as Essex and Hadrian's Wall in England. English potters based at Colchester and Chichester used stamps on their ceramic wares by

6966-696: The Army 4–tonner contract was seen by the Thatcher government as essential for the long-term survival of Leyland, and for the formation of Leyland DAF. The implications of the decision were also noted by GM in Detroit , who had already been refused permission to buy the Land Rover division of British Leyland , which they had intended to operate in tandem with the Bedford Truck division as a major force in

7095-616: The Bedford brand continued to be used on light commercial vehicles and car-derived vans based on Vauxhall/ Opel , Isuzu and Suzuki designs. The brand was retired in 1990. The van manufacturing plant of Bedford, now called Vauxhall Luton , is now owned and operated by Stellantis , following Vauxhall's acquisition by PSA Group in 2017. Until 1925, General Motors assembled trucks in Britain from parts manufactured at its Canadian works. This enabled them to import vehicles into Britain under Imperial Preference , which favoured products from

7224-536: The British Empire as far as import duties were concerned. Such trucks were marketed as "British Chevrolet". In November 1925, GM purchased Vauxhall Motors with production transferred from Hendon to Luton , Vauxhall's headquarters, production commencing there in 1929. The brand was retired in May 1990. The AC and LQ models were produced at Luton from 1929 to 1931, and styled as the "Chevrolet Bedford", taking

7353-595: The CF became very popular as a base of special-bodied ice cream vans and mobile shops. The later CF2 used the more reliable Opel Ascona engine. In Australia, the GM subsidiary of Holden began assembling the CF series with in-line six-cylinder engines borrowed from their passenger car range, in competition against Ford Australia 's version of the Transit van which had been re-engineered to accommodate in-line six-cylinder engines from

7482-507: The CF was much less popular with fleet operators than the Transit, which was more popular with its drivers and seen as cheaper to operate and maintain. Part of the reason for the CF's relative unpopularity was the use of the slant 4 SOHC petrol engine from the FD and FE Vauxhall Victor – which was notoriously rough running, had high fuel consumption, and was susceptible to cam belt breakage. However,

7611-562: The Ford Transit. Perhaps the major event of the 1950s was the transfer of all non-car based commercial vehicle manufacture to the former Vauxhall shadow factory at Boscombe Road, Dunstable. Bedford Dunstable plant , dating originally from 1942, was extensively rebuilt and extended between 1955 and 1957, when all production lines were said to be over a mile long. Subsequently, all commercial vehicle manufacture would be concentrated there, with only vans and car-based commercials remaining at

7740-670: The German armed forces – although the Bedfords mainly filled second-line roles, including civil defence. Production of the new range ceased, apart from a few examples made for essential civilian duties, when Bedford went onto a war footing. Production resumed in 1945. In 1935, Bedford began the development of a 15 cwt truck for the British War Office . This entered service as the MW in 1939, and 65,995 examples had been built by

7869-623: The JC, derived from the new J Model Vauxhall car. Many of the trucks sold by Bedford between June and September 1939 were requisitioned for military use on the outbreak of World War II ; many were abandoned after the retreat from Dunkirk , rendered useless to the enemy by removing the engine oil drain plug and running the engine. Because the German armed forces in 1940 were, contrary to their popular image, desperately short of motor transport, many of these captured Bedfords were repaired and pressed into service alongside Opel Blitz (also part of GM) trucks by

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7998-569: The Luton plant. Production of the Bedford commercial vehicle range remained there until production ceased in the 1980s. The 1950s also saw the launch of the popular S type trucks , the so-called Big Bedfords, which brought Bedford into the 7-ton range. The S series was immortalised in RL form – a four-wheel drive , high ground clearance version, as the Green Goddess emergency fire tender, used by

8127-479: The Medieval period. British silversmiths introduced hallmarks for silver in 1300. Some brands still in existence as of 2018 date from the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries' period of mass-production. Bass Brewery , the British brewery founded in 1777, became a pioneer in international brand marketing. Many years before 1855, Bass applied a red triangle to casks of its pale ale. In 1876, its red-triangle brand became

8256-488: The S series, and outwardly very similar to it. These vehicles were available in rigid and tractor units, with either petrol or diesel engines. The UK military were a huge customer for Bedford RLs using a 4.9-litre straight six petrol engine. Many RLs found their way into the armed forces of Commonwealth countries and later into civilian use. Alongside the S series trucks, the SB bus was released in 1950, and immediately became

8385-511: The S type in 1959, but the RL continued in production until 1969, when it was replaced by the M type, which used the basic cab of the TK and the mechanicals of the RL with minimal changes. The pre-war K, M and O types continued in production alongside the heavier S types until 1953. Vauxhall had already gone for a transatlantic styling with its E Model Wyvern and Velox saloons, and Bedford followed suit with its mid-range of trucks in 1953. Designated as

8514-472: The TK was the quintessential light truck in the UK through most of the 1960s and 1970s, competing with the similar Ford D series . It was available in rigid form, and also as a light tractor unit, normally using the Scammell coupling form of trailer attachment. The Bedford KM was a similar vehicle, using the same cab, but with a slightly restyled front end, and was marketed for heavier-duty applications than

8643-407: The TK, i.e. 16 tons and over. Many developing countries still use ageing Bedfords every day, their robust nature and simple engineering endearing them as highly useful vehicles in demanding terrain. From 1961 to 1968, General Motors Argentina manufactured Bedford trucks and truck-based buses in a plant at San Martín, Buenos Aires . In 1967, a Bedford SB3 chassis with Plaxton 's Panorama cab

8772-400: The UK and British Empire markets lay in the overhead-valve (OHV) six-cylinder Chevrolet engine, now known as Chevrolet Stovebolt engine – well ahead of its time, this smooth running inline six- cylinder engine formed the basis of Bedford and Vauxhall petrol engines almost until the marque ceased building trucks and buses. In April 1932, a 30 cwt lorry was introduced, together with

8901-723: The Vauxhall Midi. Bedford's first partnership with Isuzu came in 1976 when it marketed a rebadged version of the Isuzu Faster pickup truck as the Bedford KB. The vehicle was never a strong seller in Britain, (subsequent generations were badged as the Bedford/Vauxhall Brava), but it did pave the way for further collaboration – culminating in the IBC venture. In 1986, the Bedford van factory in Luton

9030-476: The atrium, and bearing labels as follows: Scaurus' fish sauce was known by people across the Mediterranean to be of very high quality, and its reputation traveled as far away as modern France. In both Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum, archaeological evidence also points to evidence of branding and labeling in relatively common use across a broad range of goods. Wine jars, for example, were stamped with names, such as "Lassius" and "L. Eumachius"; probably references to

9159-524: The barrels used, effectively using a corporate trademark as a quasi-brand. Factories established following the Industrial Revolution introduced mass-produced goods and needed to sell their products to a wider market—that is, to customers previously familiar only with locally produced goods. It became apparent that a generic package of soap had difficulty competing with familiar, local products. Packaged-goods manufacturers needed to convince

9288-502: The basis for a variety of derivatives including fire engines , military vehicles , horse-boxes, tippers, flat-bed trucks, and other specialist utility vehicles . A Post Office Telephones version used for installing telegraph poles was known as the Pole Erection Unit. The British Armed Forces still use four-wheel drive Bedford MKs – a variant of the TK. Available with four and six-cylinder petrol and diesel engines,

9417-427: The beginnings of brand management. This trend continued to the 1980s, and as of 2018 is quantified by marketers in concepts such as brand value and brand equity . Naomi Klein has described this development as "brand equity mania". In 1988, for example, Philip Morris Companies purchased Kraft Foods Inc. for six times what the company was worth on paper. Business analysts reported that what they really purchased

9546-401: The brand and is termed the consumer's brand experience . The brand is often intended to create an emotional response and recognition, leading to potential loyalty and repeat purchases. The brand experience is a brand's action perceived by a person. The psychological aspect, sometimes referred to as the brand image , is a symbolic construct created within the minds of people, consisting of all

9675-412: The brand has a much higher chance of creating a positive lasting effect on its customers' senses as well as memory. Another way a brand can ensure that it is utilizing the best communication channel is by focusing on touchpoints that suit particular areas associated with customer experience . As suggested Figure 2, certain touch points link with a specific stage in customer-brand-involvement. For example,

9804-413: The brand or on the basis of the reputation of the brand owner. Brand awareness involves a customer's ability to recall and/or recognize brands, logos, and branded advertising. Brands help customers to understand which brands or products belong to which product or service category. Brands assist customers to understand the constellation of benefits offered by individual brands, and how a given brand within

9933-425: The brand". Touch points represent the channel stage in the traditional communication model, where a message travels from the sender to the receiver. Any point where a customer has an interaction with the brand - whether watching a television advertisement, hearing about a brand through word of mouth or even noticing a branded license plate – defines a touchpoint. According to Dahlen et al. (2010), every touchpoint has

10062-400: The brand's intended message through its IMC. Although IMC is a broad strategic concept, the most crucial brand communication elements are pinpointed to how the brand sends a message and what touch points the brand uses to connect with its customers [Chitty 2005]. One can analyze the traditional communication model into several consecutive steps: When a brand communicates a brand identity to

10191-509: The brand, he or she is more likely to try other products offered by the company – such as chocolate-chip cookies, for example. Brand development, often performed by a design team , takes time to produce. A brand name is the part of a brand that can be spoken or written and identifies a product, service or company and sets it apart from other comparable products within a category. A brand name may include words, phrases, signs, symbols, designs, or any combination of these elements. For consumers,

10320-455: The brand. In 2012 Riefler stated that if the company communicating a brand is a global organization or has future global aims, that company should look to employ a method of communication that is globally appealing to their consumers, and subsequently choose a method of communication with will be internationally understood. One way a company can do this involves choosing a product or service's brand name, as this name will need to be suitable for

10449-594: The branding of cattle occur in ancient Egyptian tombs dating to around 2,700 BCE. Over time, purchasers realized that the brand provided information about origin as well as about ownership, and could serve as a guide to quality. Branding was adapted by farmers, potters, and traders for use on other types of goods such as pottery and ceramics. Forms of branding or proto-branding emerged spontaneously and independently throughout Africa, Asia and Europe at different times, depending on local conditions. Seals , which acted as quasi-brands, have been found on early Chinese products of

10578-400: The chassis, which at 14 ft 6 in (4.42 m) was longer than the previous WTB model. The six cylinder overhead valve power unit with a capacity of 3519 cc, introduced in 1938, developed 72 bhp (54 kW; 73 PS) at 3000 rpm. Only 73 OB buses were built in the two months before production ceased at the outbreak of World War II . All of Vauxhall and Bedford's production

10707-501: The consumer through branding. Producers began by attaching simple stone seals to products which, over time, gave way to clay seals bearing impressed images, often associated with the producer's personal identity thus giving the product a personality. Not all historians agree that these markings are comparable with modern brands or labels, with some suggesting that the early pictorial brands or simple thumbprints used in pottery should be termed proto-brands while other historians argue that

10836-611: The development of a four-wheel drive , forward control lorry, which entered service in March 1941 as the QL , quickly nicknamed the "Queen Lizzie". As with the MW and OY / OX models, the QL went on to serve in a large number of roles, such as artillery tractor, gun porter, command vehicle, wireless lorry and petrol tanker, as well as the troop-carrying QLD, the most common variant. An experimental version used

10965-506: The development of the new Bedford Dunstable plant , which came online in 1942. For wartime production the OB was temporarily replaced by the "utility" OWB, with which Bedford became the only British manufacturer authorised to build single-deck buses during hostilities. Apart from vehicle manufacture during World War II, Vauxhall Motors produced steel helmets , RP-3 rocket bodies, and components for Frank Whittle 's top-secret jet engine . The HC 5–6 cwt van continued briefly after

11094-403: The end of the war in 1945. The MW appeared in a wide range of roles, as a water tanker, general duties truck, personnel carrier, petrol tanker, wireless truck and anti-aircraft gun tractor – among others. The War Office designated 15 cwt vehicles, such as the MW, as trucks, and larger vehicles as lorries. The 1939 K-, M-, and O-series lorries were quickly redesigned for military use. This

11223-516: The environment by associating with the brand. Aside from attributes and benefits, a brand's identity may also involve branding to focus on representing its core set of values . If a company is seen to symbolize specific values, it will, in turn, attract customers who also believe in these values. For example, Nike's brand represents the value of a " just do it " attitude. Thus, this form of brand identification attracts customers who also share this same value. Even more extensive than its perceived values

11352-414: The extended identity. The core identity reflects consistent long-term associations with the brand; whereas the extended identity involves the intricate details of the brand that help generate a constant motif. According to Kotler et al. (2009), a brand's identity may deliver four levels of meaning: A brand's attributes are a set of labels with which the corporation wishes to be associated. For example,

11481-426: The first registered trademark issued by the British government. Guinness World Records recognizes Tate & Lyle (of Lyle's Golden Syrup ) as Britain's, and the world's, oldest branding and packaging, with its green-and-gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since 1885. Twinings tea has used the same logo – capitalized font beneath a lion crest – since 1787, making it

11610-642: The fourth century BCE. In largely pre-literate society, the shape of the amphora and its pictorial markings conveyed information about the contents, region of origin and even the identity of the producer, which were understood to convey information about product quality. David Wengrow has argued that branding became necessary following the urban revolution in ancient Mesopotamia in the 4th century BCE, when large-scale economies started mass-producing commodities such as alcoholic drinks, cosmetics and textiles. These ancient societies imposed strict forms of quality-control over commodities, and also needed to convey value to

11739-436: The information and expectations associated with a product, with a service, or with the companies providing them. Marketers or product managers that responsible for branding, seek to develop or align the expectations behind the brand experience, creating the impression that a brand associated with a product or service has certain qualities or characteristics, which make it special or unique. A brand can, therefore, become one of

11868-493: The likes of Volvo , MAN and Mercedes-Benz ). The Bedford TM was the largest of all the modern Bedfords, with payloads available up to 42  tonnes GTW permissible. The TM was available with either GM or Detroit Diesel engines and enjoyed a small but loyal customer base, but could never compete with the volume producers, primarily Volvo and Scania , even in its home market. Turkey's Genoto assembled Bedfords under license. A major blow came when Bedford failed to win

11997-430: The literature on branding suggests that consumers prefer brands with personalities that are congruent with their own. Consumers may distinguish the psychological aspect (brand associations like thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images, experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and so on that become linked to the brand) of a brand from the experiential aspect. The experiential aspect consists of the sum of all points of contact with

12126-923: The local Ford Falcon . Bedford's smallest products, car-derived vans , were the Bedford HA van, which substantially outlived the Vauxhall Viva HA on which it was based, and the Bedford Chevanne , a short-lived variant of the Vauxhall Chevette . An estate conversion of the HA van by Martin Walter was marketed as the Bedford Beagle . This was further developed into a camper van, the Roma, again by Martin Walter. The company also made

12255-419: The logo for go.com . Unlike brand recognition, brand recall (also known as unaided brand recall or spontaneous brand recall ) is the ability of the customer retrieving the brand correctly from memory. Rather than being given a choice of multiple brands to satisfy a need, consumers are faced with a need first, and then must recall a brand from their memory to satisfy that need. This level of brand awareness

12384-473: The market that the public could place just as much trust in the non-local product. Gradually, manufacturers began using personal identifiers to differentiate their goods from generic products on the market. Marketers generally began to realize that brands, to which personalities were attached, outsold rival brands. By the 1880s, large manufacturers had learned to imbue their brands' identity with personality traits such as youthfulness, fun, sex appeal, luxury or

12513-540: The marketplace that it aims to enter. It is important that if a company wishes to develop a global market, the company name will also need to be suitable in different cultures and not cause offense or be misunderstood. When communicating a brand, a company needs to be aware that they must not just visually communicate their brand message and should take advantage of portraying their message through multi-sensory information. One article suggests that other senses, apart from vision, need to be targeted when trying to communicate

12642-411: The military and civilian off-roader market. In addition to this setback, by the middle of the decade, the more technologically advanced competition from other truck manufacturers was eating heavily into sales. In reality, the Bedford truck range, still largely based on the 1960 TK range, had become increasingly outdated when compared with the opposition, leading to a deep decline in non-military sales. It

12771-418: The minds of customers . The key components that form a brand's toolbox include a brand's identity, personality, product design , brand communication (such as by logos and trademarks ), brand awareness , brand loyalty , and various branding ( brand management ) strategies. Many companies believe that there is often little to differentiate between several types of products in the 21st century, hence branding

12900-400: The minds of its consumers. Marketing-mix modeling can help marketing leaders optimize how they spend marketing budgets to maximize the impact on brand awareness or on sales. Managing brands for value creation will often involve applying marketing-mix modeling techniques in conjunction with brand valuation . Brands typically comprise various elements, such as: Although brand identity

13029-433: The most enduring campaigns of the 20th-century. Brand advertisers began to imbue goods and services with a personality, based on the insight that consumers searched for brands with personalities that matched their own. Effective branding, attached to strong brand values, can result in higher sales of not only one product, but of other products associated with that brand. If a customer loves Pillsbury biscuits and trusts

13158-579: The most valuable elements in an advertising theme, as it demonstrates what the brand owner is able to offer in the marketplace . This means that building a strong brand helps to distinguish a product from similar ones and differentiate it from competitors. The art of creating and maintaining a brand is called brand management . The orientation of an entire organization towards its brand is called brand orientation . Brand orientation develops in response to market intelligence . Careful brand management seeks to make products or services relevant and meaningful to

13287-525: The name from the county town of Bedfordshire , in which Luton is located. The AC was bodied as a light van (12  cwt ), and the LQ in a wide variety of roles, including a lorry, ambulance, van and bus versions. The name "Chevrolet" was dropped, and the first Bedford was produced in April 1931. This vehicle, a 2-ton lorry, was virtually indistinguishable from its LQ Chevrolet predecessor, apart from detail styling of

13416-564: The name of the producer. The use of identity marks on products declined following the fall of the Roman Empire . In the European Middle Ages , heraldry developed a language of visual symbolism which would feed into the evolution of branding, and with the rise of the merchant guilds the use of marks resurfaced and was applied to specific types of goods. By the 13th century, the use of maker's marks had become evident on

13545-473: The presence of these simple markings does not imply that mature brand management practices operated. Scholarly studies have found evidence of branding, packaging, and labeling in antiquity. Archaeological evidence of potters' stamps has been found across the breadth of the Roman Empire and in ancient Greece . Stamps were used on bricks, pottery, and storage containers as well as on fine ceramics. Pottery marking had become commonplace in ancient Greece by

13674-518: The producer's name. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with the name of Ennion appearing most prominently. One merchant that made good use of the titulus pictus was Umbricius Scaurus, a manufacturer of fish sauce (also known as garum ) in Pompeii, c.  35 CE . Mosaic patterns in the atrium of his house feature images of amphorae bearing his personal brand and quality claims. The mosaic depicts four different amphora, one at each corner of

13803-599: The radiator, and was available as the WHG with a 10 feet 11 inches (3,330 mm) wheelbase , or as the WLG with a longer wheelbase of 13 feet 1 inch (3,990 mm). However, the Chevrolet LQ and AC continued in production alongside the new product for a further year. In August 1931, a bus chassis was added to the range, and was designated WHB and WLB. A large part of Bedford's original success in breaking into

13932-531: The surviving participants and their families on board. They showed their reaction and interviewed audience members about their often newly jogged memories of events. The Vintage Mobile Cinema has appeared on The One Show and George Clarke's Small Spaces , and continues to appear around the UK. The smaller Bedford CF was less successful, competing directly with the market-dominating Ford Transit , although used by many of Britain's major utility companies, including British Telecom and British Gas plc . However,

14061-407: The track unit of a Bren gun carrier (or Universal Carrier ), as an answer to the German half-track vehicles, which had superior cross-country capability. Production ran at around 12,000 units per year between 1942 and 1944. Many QLs and other Bedford World War II military vehicles served with the British Army, and other forces into the 1960s, and many others were purchased for civilian use after

14190-476: The trend. By the early 1900s, trade press publications, advertising agencies , and advertising experts began producing books and pamphlets exhorting manufacturers to bypass retailers and to advertise directly to consumers with strongly branded messages. Around 1900, advertising guru James Walter Thompson published a housing advertisement explaining trademark advertising. This was an early commercial explanation of what scholars now recognize as modern branding and

14319-604: The war, and the JC 10–12 cwt was fitted with the column gear change; and engine from the Vauxhall L Model Wyvern in late 1948; and became the PC. 1952 saw the launch of the Bedford CA light commercial, signifying the end of the road for the outmoded HC and JC models. The CA was a range of vans and pick-ups similar in concept and size to (although pre-dating) the Ford Transit of 1965. These were semi-forward control, having

14448-755: The war. After the Dunkirk evacuation in June 1940, the British Army had around 100 tanks, most of which were obsolete and inferior to the German tanks of the day. Vauxhall Motors was given one year to design and produce a suitable heavy tank. In May 1941, the Churchill tank derived from work on the A22 tank with Harland & Wolff went into production at Luton, some 5,640 units and 2,000 spare engines being produced at Luton, and other sites under contract to Vauxhall. The resultant need to continue truck production brought about

14577-400: The way in which consumers had started to develop relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense. Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon /Esso, using insights drawn from research into psychology and cultural anthropology , led to some of

14706-417: The world's oldest in continuous use. A characteristic feature of 19th-century mass-marketing was the widespread use of branding, originating with the advent of packaged goods . Industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap , from local communities to centralized factories . When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or company insignia on

14835-562: Was 3,398, finishing in late 1945, the majority of the utility bodies were by Duple, a trend that would continue post-war. Bedford restarted the production of the OB again in October 1945, this time at the Bedford Dunstable plant . There were only minor changes to the pre-war design. From the end of the war, until 1951, a total of 12,693 OB's were built. The Vista remained Duple's standard OB body, until production ceased in 1951. It

14964-462: Was a brand of vehicle manufactured by Vauxhall Motors , then a subsidiary of multinational corporation General Motors . Established in April 1931, Bedford Vehicles was set up to build commercial vehicles . The company was a leading international lorry brand, with substantial export sales of light, medium, and heavy lorries throughout the world. Bedford's core heavy trucks business was divested by General Motors (GM) as AWD Trucks in 1987, whilst

15093-604: Was introduced in 1938, based on the Vauxhall Ten car, and the WT and WS acquired a newly styled grill. Mid -1939 saw a complete revamp of Bedfords, with only the HC van continuing in production. The new range consisted of the K (30–40 cwt), MS and ML (2–3 ton), OS and OL (3–4 ton), OS/40 and OL/40 (5 ton) series, and the OB bus . Also on offer was a new 10–12 cwt van,

15222-442: Was introduced in 1958, available with either petrol or diesel engines. Although never a big seller in the home market (with the exception of Post Office Telephones ), it was a big export earner in developing countries, due to its basic layout and specification, and remained in production (for export markets only) until production of Bedford vehicles ceased. The Bedford TK range was produced in large numbers since 1959, and served as

15351-525: Was largely a matter of styling, involving a sloping bonnet with a flat front with headlights incorporated and a crash bar to protect the radiator in a minor collision. The military versions were designated OX and OY series, and again were put to a wide range of tasks, including mobile canteens, tankers, general purpose lorries, and a version with a Tasker semi-trailer used by the Royal Air Force to transport dismantled or damaged aircraft. This variant

15480-570: Was offered. A change in design of the WLG produced the WTL, with its cab, internal combustion engine and radiator moved forward to allow a 14 feet (4.3 m) bodylength. In 1935, the WTB bus version appeared, and the WS and VYC models were updated – the latter being redesignated BYC as it was fitted with the engine and synchromesh gearbox of the Big Six Vauxhall cars. The 5–6 cwt HC light van

15609-651: Was popularly known as the Queen Mary . A number of Bedford OXD 1.5 ton chassis were converted to make the Bedford OXA armoured vehicle. A total of 72,385 OY and 24,429 OX lorries were built. The Armadillo was an OY fitted for airfield defence with Lewis guns and an ex-aircraft COW 37 mm gun . Bedford supplied numerous trucks and tanks to the Soviet Union during World War II. A radical departure from Bedford's design norms came in October 1939, with

15738-812: Was reorganised as a joint venture with Isuzu. The resulting company, IBC Vehicles , produced a locally built version of the Isuzu Fargo in 1985 (badged as the Bedford Midi). In 1991, this was followed by a European version of the Isuzu MU Wizard called the Frontera, and a rebadged Renault Trafic van called the Arena, sold under the Vauxhall and Opel brand names. The Bedford name was dropped completely, as were all of its preceding range apart from

15867-457: Was sold in 1987 to AWD Trucks, a company owned by David John Bowes Brown. The AWD name was used as GM would only allow the use of the Bedford name for military trucks. David John Bowes Brown was the designer in 1973 of the then DJB D250 Articulated Dump Truck, built in Peterlee , England, by DJB Engineering. DJB was renamed Artix in 1985 when the trucks were rebadged as Caterpillar. Artix itself

15996-419: Was sold to Caterpillar in 1996. Brand The practice of branding—in the original literal sense of marking by burning—is thought to have begun with the ancient Egyptians , who are known to have engaged in livestock branding and branded slaves as early as 2,700 BCE. Branding was used to differentiate one person's cattle from another's by means of a distinctive symbol burned into the animal's skin with

16125-618: Was succeeded by the Bedford SB . Some wartime OWBs were rebuilt to post-war OB standard. The OB was sold in other Commonwealth countries, with Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation bodying many in Australia. The OB is one of the most popular coaches in preservation. There are known to be 180 still in existence, nearly 70 in roadworthy condition, and 30 are licensed for private hire work. They have regularly appeared in period television programmes including Foyle's War and Miss Marple . To celebrate its 70th anniversary, on 30 August 2009,

16254-435: Was the brand name. With the rise of mass media in the early 20th century, companies adopted techniques that allowed their messages to stand out. Slogans , mascots , and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and in early television in the 1930s . Soap manufacturers sponsored many of the earliest radio drama series, and the genre became known as soap opera . By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize

16383-425: Was therefore announced by GM that Bedford would stop production of all commercial vehicles, and the Dunstable plant would close in 1986. From there on in, the Bedford name continued as badge engineering on smaller light commercials only. The HA compact van finally ceased production in 1983, having been kept in production largely due to continuing large orders from British utility companies such as British Rail and

16512-742: Was turned over to the war effort, specifically producing the Churchill tank . The Bedford OWB chassis was produced during the war to the same basic design as the OB, but replacing valuable metals, like aluminium, with cast iron, and fitted with austere bodywork and interior featuring 32 seats with no upholstery, just wooden slats like a park bench. Bodies were designed and built by Duple Coachbuilders and bodies to Duple drawings were also built by Charles H. Roe in Leeds, Mulliners in Birmingham and Scottish Motor Traction in Edinburgh. Total OWB production

16641-599: Was used in the construction of seven custom mobile cinema units that toured British factories for the Ministry of Technology to "raise standards". The body was custom fabricated from extruded aluminium by Coventry Steel Caravans. One of these restored units is used as a vintage mobile cinema. The vehicle dubbed The Reel History Bus was used in the BBC Two television series, Reel History of Britain showing little known or totally unseen archive film of historical events, to

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