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136-642: Adopted in 1994, three years after the country declared its independence from the Soviet Union , this formal document establishes the framework of the Belarusian state and government and enumerates the rights and freedoms of its citizens. However, the United Nations and various observers challenge that the rule of law is respected or that the judiciary is independent in Belarus, highlighting

272-570: A Soviet Republic (USSR) , and a new constitution was adopted. Belarus continued to use this constitution until it – along with Russia, Ukraine , and the Transcaucasus – signed a treaty to form the Soviet Union . Now the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Byelorussian SSR), the country adopted its first Soviet-era constitution in 1927, complementing the recently adopted Soviet Constitution . After

408-453: A ballot. Second, a person being held in detention or confined in a prison during an election cannot cast a ballot. The Constitution says nothing about the voting rights of those who have served their prison terms, nor does it state how those citizens gain the rights back. National referendums, or plebiscites, are elections whereby citizens can determine whether a specific legal text can become official law or not. For this to take place, one of

544-586: A brave decision to meet a Western provocation. Together with its low credibility explanation in 1986 of the meltdown of the nuclear reactor at Chernobyl, the episode demonstrated an inability to deal with public relations crises; the propaganda system was only aimed at people who already were committed friends of the Soviet Union. Both crises were escalated by technological and organizational failures, compounded by human error. US−Soviet relations deteriorated rapidly especially after March 1983, when Reagan dubbed

680-416: A civilian jet liner, Korean Air Flight KAL-007 , which carried 269 passengers and crew. It had strayed over the Soviet Union on 1 September 1983 on its scheduled route from Anchorage, Alaska, to Seoul, South Korea. The Soviet system was unprepared to deal with a civilian airliner, and the shooting down was a matter of following orders without question. Instead of admitting an accident, Soviet media proclaimed

816-706: A compromise for reducing nuclear missiles in Europe on both sides that was ultimately ignored by the Politburo. Kvitsinsky would later write that, despite his own efforts, the Soviet leadership was not interested in compromise, instead calculating that peace movements in the West would force the Americans to capitulate. On 8 March 1983, during Andropov's reign as General Secretary, U.S. President Ronald Reagan famously labeled

952-469: A continued high military budget. Aged 68, Andropov was the oldest person ever appointed as General Secretary. Andropov began a thorough house-cleaning throughout the party and state bureaucracy, a decision made easy by the fact that the Central Committee had an average age of 69. He replaced more than one-fifth of the Soviet ministers and regional party first secretaries and more than one-third of

1088-612: A discussion from taking place: Either there is a state of emergency, or there are less than six months in the current term of the House of Representatives. In order for an amendment to take effect, it must be approved by either two-thirds of both chambers of the National Assembly or a simple majority of the voting population of Belarus in a national referendum. The only restriction is that Sections One, Two, Four and Eight can only be changed by national referendum. Rules for conducting

1224-514: A general feeling of discontent, especially in the Soviet-occupied Baltic countries and Eastern Europe . Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev , created an atmosphere of open criticism of the communist regime , and also perestroika . The dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986 profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership. Nikolai Tikhonov ,

1360-540: A law and a decree is, the law would be enforced. To amend the Constitution, one of two things must happen before the National Assembly can consider the measure: The president must suggest the change, or 150,000 eligible voters must send a petition to the National Assembly. Both chambers of the National Assembly must discuss the proposed amendments for a minimum of three months. Two conditions can prevent

1496-544: A minister is over or the president has been replaced. The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Belarus is the highest court in Belarus. While other courts deal with civil or criminal issues, the Constitutional Court deals with matters involving the Constitution and the legality of certain laws passed by the government. The court has the power to declare any law unconstitutional. From April until May 2007,

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1632-538: A national referendum are enumerated in Chapters 22 through 25 of the Electoral Code of the Republic of Belarus. Since the original adoption of the Constitution in 1994, it has been amended twice; once in 1996 and once in 2004. The ninth and last section of the Constitution was added following passage of the 1996 revision of Constitution and addresses laws passed before 1996. If the laws that were passed before

1768-494: A nationality and foreigners are, under the Constitution, granted the same status and rights as citizens of Belarus. Belarus also has the power to grant asylum to those who have been subject to persecution due to their ethnic background, political ideology or religious affiliation. The Constitution also establishes Belarusian and Russian as the official languages of the country, pledges neutrality and non- nuclear proliferation , adopts national symbols, and establishes Minsk as

1904-613: A neutral country, stated in Article 18 of the 2004 constitution, should be preserved with regard to joining NATO and the European Union. In a 1998 journal, the New York University School of Law noted that Belarusian legal scholars came up with a new theory to deal with jurisprudence. Laws are constitutional if they follow the will of President Lukashenko and the people; unconstitutional if the president and

2040-718: A re-adoption in 1937, the Byelorussian SSR adopted its last Soviet-era constitution in 1978, mainly to reflect changes made in the 1977 Soviet Constitution. When Belarus became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991, the Supreme Council of Belarus passed the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic , proclaiming Byelorussian SSR acts legal priority over USSR ones (per article 7 of

2176-548: A reduction in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 's (CPSU) micromanagement of the economy and greater attention to public opinion. However, KGB repression of Soviet dissidents also increased. In February 1983, Soviet representatives withdrew from the World Psychiatric Organization in protest of that group's continued complaints about the use of psychiatry to suppress dissent . This policy

2312-481: A series of crises in the 1990s, which nearly led to the election of Yeltsin's Communist challenger, Gennady Zyuganov , in the 1996 presidential election . After the turn of the century, the economy of Russia has begun to improve greatly, due to major investments and business development and also due to high prices of natural resources. According to Boris N. Mironov, by 2020 Russian scholars had produced over 300 books, 3000 articles, and 20 dissertations trying to explain

2448-799: A sharp economic decline in the already failing Soviet economy. The US financed the training for the Mujahideen warlords such as Jalaluddin Haqqani , Gulbudin Hekmatyar and Burhanuddin Rabbani eventually culminated to the fall of the Soviet satellite the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan . While the CIA and MI6 and the People's Liberation Army of China financed the operation along with

2584-630: A thorough shakeup with the commanders of all 16 military districts replaced along with all theaters of military operation, as well as the three Soviet fleets. Not since World War II had the Soviet military had such a rapid turnover of officers. Sixty-eight-year-old Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov was fully rehabilitated after having fallen from favor in 1983–84 due to his handling of the KAL 007 shootdown and his ideas about improving Soviet strategic and tactical doctrines were made into an official part of defense policy, although some of his other ambitions such as developing

2720-506: A time when dissatisfaction was increasing. In all, the positive view of Soviet lifelong presented to the public by the official media was rapidly fading, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This undermined the faith of the public in the Soviet system and eroded the Communist Party's social power base, threatening the identity and integrity of the Soviet Union itself. Fraying amongst

2856-516: A time. Many Europeans became convinced that the US and not the Soviet Union was the more aggressive country, and there was fear over the prospect of a war, especially since there was a widespread conviction in Europe that the US, being separated from the Red Army by two oceans as opposed to a short land border, was insensitive to the people of Germany and other countries. Moreover, the memory of World War II

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2992-404: A transitional measure, Section Nine states that the present (as of November 1996) leadership of Belarus can continue to serve until their term of service has been completed. When the Constitution is enforced, the national government is allowed to exercise their assigned duties. Unless otherwise stated in Article 143, Part 3, the national leadership must form state governmental bodies two months after

3128-596: A weakening of the Soviet government , which led to disintegration and took place from about 19 January 1990 to 26 December 1991. The process was characterized by many of the republics of the Soviet Union declaring their independence and being recognized as sovereign nation-states . Andrei Grachev, the Deputy Head of the Intelligence Department of the Central Committee, summed up the denouement of

3264-610: Is appointed by the president with permission from the Council of the Republic. The State Supervisory Committee is tasked with monitoring the national budget, implementing the president's economic policy, and regulating the use of government property. As with the prosecutor general, the State Supervisory Committee is appointed by the president. Section Seven specifies the fiscal responsibilities of Belarus. A national budget must be created, along with budgets for

3400-461: Is composed of articles 1 to 20. They prescribe a sovereign , multi-party representative democracy, run by the people of Belarus, that forms its own foreign policy. Section One also establishes that the state protects the rights and freedoms of its citizens, but contains the proviso that a citizen of Belarus "bears a responsibility towards the State to discharge unwaveringly the duties imposed upon him by

3536-442: Is divided into discrete regions , called oblasts . The oblasts are further divided into districts which are in turn subdivided into cities. The Constitution also allows for special regions to be created, which are to be controlled by legislation. Citizens of Belarus are also promised protection and sponsorship, regardless of whether they are inside Belarusian borders or in a foreign country. With some exceptions, those who do not have

3672-551: Is not just irresponsible. It is insane". In August 1983, Andropov announced that the country was stopping all work on space-based weapons. Meanwhile, Soviet–U.S. arms control talks on intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe were suspended by the Soviet Union in November 1983 and by the end of the year, the Soviets had broken off all arms control negotiations. Massive bad publicity worldwide came when Soviet fighters shot down

3808-477: Is separate but must work together to serve the people. The Constitution also makes Belarus a presidential democracy , significantly reducing the role of the prime minister. Of the fifteen former Soviet republics , Belarus was the one of latest to create and pass a new constitution subsequent to the dissolution of the USSR . A delay occurred due to debates among Supreme Council deputies, who were also trying to stave off

3944-402: Is the top priority of the government. These rights are granted to all citizens of Belarus and every Belarusian is to be treated equally under Belarusian law. However, these rights can be removed for national security reasons or if Belarus is under a state of emergency . No one is allowed to "enjoy advantages and privileges that are contrary to the law." A state of emergency, which can be called by

4080-803: The Belarusian Government , mainly the President of the Republic of Belarus, the Council of Ministers , the Parliament of Belarus and the courts. Although elected by the Belarusian people, the president must not be a member of a political party when he or she assumes office. The Constitution also lists official duties for various posts, such as the president being the commander-in-chief of the Belarusian Armed Forces . The section also describes procedures for situations where

4216-564: The Belarusian Popular Front pressed for a referendum, and despite achieving the number of signatures required by law at the time, the Supreme Council quashed the measure. The results of the 1996 referendum led to the exclusion of opposition parties from the new parliament. Due to problems associated with transparency and ballot stuffing , the European Union, United States and several other nations do not recognize

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4352-629: The President of Belarus according to Article 84, has to be approved by the Council of the Republic within three days of its announcement, according to Article 98. The Constitution provides that life is a right and that the government will protect the lives of its citizens against other citizens who wish to harm them or their property. The Constitution also allows for the death penalty to be exercised for grave crimes, but only in accordance with national law. If citizens are arrested, they are granted due process of law and do not have to testify against themselves or their family members. Citizens are also given

4488-550: The Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev 's death until the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Due to the years of Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development, and complex systemic problems in the command economy, Soviet output stagnated. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the proxies of the United States against the Soviet Union 's forces in the war in Afghanistan led to

4624-660: The United States . Internally, the Constitution was influenced by the period of Soviet domination and a desire to bring back traditions brushed aside by the Soviet Government. The structure of the Constitution is similar to the Russian Federation : for example, the office of the President has powers analogous to those granted to the President of Russia . Overall, the Constitution sought to preserve

4760-672: The prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine , and the election itself was held several days after Russia began its military offensive into Ukraine. According to the Central Election Commission of Belarus (CEC), 65.2% of voters voted in favor of the amendments to the State Constitution, offered by the authorities. The 1996 and 2004 referendums were severely criticized by the political opposition inside Belarus as well as by international observers such as

4896-486: The 1996 referendum, the validity of the vote was brought into question. According to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), many polling places went without independent observers. The OSCE believed that the standards of the vote did not meet OSCE requirements for "free and fair elections". Data from other non-governmental organizations (NGO) point out that 50% of voters did not participate in

5032-599: The Brezhnev and Gorbachev eras resembled the former much more than the latter, although hints of reform emerged as early as 1983. Brezhnev died on 10 November 1982. After a two-day power struggle Yuri Andropov became the new General Secretary . He maneuvered his way into power both through his KGB connections and by gaining the support of the military by promising not to cut defense spending. For comparison, some of his rivals such as Konstantin Chernenko were skeptical of

5168-445: The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic void, with a few exceptions. The law, passed during the thirteenth session of the Supreme Council, also provided transitional phases for office holders and government organs to form within two years. Every year since 1994, March 15 has been commemorated in Belarus as Constitution Day , a national holiday. The Constitution introduces separation of powers . According to Belarusian law, each office

5304-630: The Chairman of the Council of Ministers , was succeeded by Nikolai Ryzhkov , and Vasili Kuznetsov , the acting Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , was succeeded by Andrei Gromyko , the former Minister of Foreign Affairs. Several republics began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The Soviet Union finally collapsed in 1991 when Boris Yeltsin seized power in

5440-425: The Communist Party losing its absolute grip on the media. Before long, and much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems the Soviet government had long denied and actively concealed. Problems receiving increased attention included poor housing, alcoholism, drug abuse , pollution, outdated Stalin-era factories, and petty to large-scale corruption, all of which

5576-527: The Communist regime. Also, the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 added motive force to Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika reforms, which eventually spiraled out of control and caused the Soviet system to collapse. After years of stagnation, the "new thinking" of younger Communist apparatchik began to emerge. Following the death of terminally ill Konstantin Chernenko, the Politburo elected Mikhail Gorbachev to

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5712-515: The Constitution allow Lukashenko to remain in office until 2035 and empower the All-Belarusian People's Assembly , an extra-parliamentary body dominated by government supporters. The changes also renounced Belarus's nuclear-free zone status, allowing Belarus to host nuclear weapons for the first time since the fall of the Soviet Union ; the lead-up to the referendum occurred as Russia amassed its troops in both Russia and Belarus in

5848-415: The Constitution goes into effect. After Lukashenko assumed the presidency in 1994, he stated his intention to amend the recently passed Constitution. The amendments, according to Lukashenko, would expand the power of his office, marking a turning point in post-Soviet era politics in Belarus. A May 1995 national referendum was the first step in the amendment process. Out of the four questions, one asked if

5984-406: The Constitution. Two years later, Lukashenko scheduled the first referendum that would potentially alter the Constitution. The last referendum on the Constitution occurred in 2022, also scheduled by Lukashenko. More calls for constitutional reform came in 1996. President Lukashenko unilaterally established the referendum after the Supreme Council refused to support the measures or set up a date for

6120-411: The Constitution." Article 4 establishes that democracy "is realized on the basis of the ideology of the Belarusian statehood", which is unusual provision compared to the constitutions of other post-Soviet countries, that prohibit state ideologies. The government itself has a system of checks and balances for each branch of the government, but all of the branches are to be independent from influence from

6256-480: The Constitutional Court reviewed 101 laws and decrees; they were deemed to be constitutional. The court that deals with criminal law matters is the Supreme Court of Belarus . Section Five permits the formation of local governments. Local governments are selected by the local population and they have the power to administer local affairs, such as budgets, social services, and economic development. They also have

6392-516: The Council of Ministers, which allowed it to deal with issues related to development of economic, social and political spheres within Belarus. The 1996 referendum was not, however, the first call to dissolve the Supreme Council. In 1991 and 1992, after the August coup in Moscow by senior CPSU officials, democratic forces in the government wanted to dissolve the Supreme Council permanently. The members of

6528-470: The Declaration, but this provision was inserted into 1978 Constitution only in August 1991) and formally starting a constitutional process in Republic. Soon afterwards, the government established a Constitution Commission to facilitate the adoption of a post-Soviet constitution. In November 1991, the commission sent the first of three drafts to the Supreme Council. Upon approval from the Supreme Council,

6664-592: The Middle East, and troubles in Ethiopia and South Africa. The most critical threat was the "Second Cold War" launched by American President Ronald Reagan and a specific attack on rolling back what he denounced as the " Evil Empire ". Reagan was using American economic power, and Soviet economic weakness, to escalate massive spending on the Cold War, emphasizing high technology that Moscow lacked. The main response

6800-549: The OSCE. Observers state that the two referendums were non-transparent and that the real results were not published. Observers were not allowed to see the process of counting ballots. Specifically, the democratic opposition to President Lukashenko decided to boycott the 1996 referendum on the Constitution. During the same election, international observers found problems with the voting process or found pro-government advertisements or notices at polling places. Opposition parties contend that

6936-731: The Pakistan government against the Soviet Union, eventually the Soviet Union began looking for a withdrawal route and in 1988 the Geneva Accords were signed between Communist-Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ; under the terms Soviet troops were to withdraw. Once the withdrawal was complete the Pakistan ISI continued to support the Mujahideen against the Communist Government and by 1992,

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7072-469: The Politburo and Secretariat was Grigory Romanov , who had been Gorbachev's most significant rival for the position of General Secretary. Gromyko's removal as Foreign Minister was the most unexpected change given his decades of unflinching, faithful service compared to the unknown, inexperienced Shevardnadze. More predictably, the 80-year-old Nikolai Tikhonov , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers ,

7208-485: The Politburo. His responsibilities for the appointment of personnel allowed him to make the contacts and distribute the favors necessary for a future bid to become general secretary. At this point, Western experts believed that Andropov was grooming Gorbachev as his successor. However, although Gorbachev acted as a deputy to the general secretary throughout Andropov's illness, Gorbachev's time had not yet arrived when his patron died early in 1984. At 73, Konstantin Chernenko

7344-479: The Republic of Belarus is the state bank of Belarus and is the office responsible for issuing the national currency, the Belarusian rubel . Section Eight describes processes for enforcing and amending the Constitution. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land, therefore other laws and edicts cannot conflict with it. If a conflict occurs, the Constitution applies. If the Constitution is not in conflict, but

7480-533: The Soviet Union also prevented a visit to West Germany by East German leader Erich Honecker . Fighting in the Afghan Democratic Republic also intensified, but in the late autumn of 1984 the United States and the Soviet Union did agree to resume arms control talks in early 1985. In addition to the failing economy, the prolonged war in Afghanistan, often referred to as the Soviet Union's "Vietnam War", led to increased public dissatisfaction with

7616-828: The Soviet Union an " evil empire ". The official press agency TASS accused Reagan of "thinking only in terms of confrontation and bellicose, lunatic anti-communism". Further Soviet outrage was directed at Reagan's stationing of intermediate-range nuclear missiles in Western Europe. In Afghanistan , Angola , Nicaragua and elsewhere, under the Reagan Doctrine , the US began undermining Soviet-supported governments by supplying arms to anti-communist resistance movements in these countries. President Reagan's decision to deploy medium-range Pershing II missiles in Western Europe met with mass protests in countries such as France and West Germany, sometimes numbering 1 million people at

7752-574: The Soviet Union an " evil empire ". The same month, on 23 March, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative . Reagan claimed this research program into ballistic missile defense would be "consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". However, Andropov was dismissive of this claim, and said that "It is time they [Washington] stopped ... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war. ... Engaging in this

7888-705: The Soviet Union and stated that the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War." East-West tensions increased during the first term of US President Ronald Reagan (1981–85), reaching levels not seen since the Cuban Missile Crisis as Reagan increased US military spending to 7% of the GDP. To match the military buildup, the Soviet Union increased its own military spending to 27% of its GDP and froze production of civilian goods at 1980 levels, causing

8024-605: The Soviet economy suffered from both hidden inflation and pervasive supply shortages aggravated by an increasingly open black market that undermined the official economy. Additionally, the costs of superpower status—the military, space program, subsidies to client states—were out of proportion to the Soviet economy. The new wave of industrialization based upon information technology had left the Soviet Union desperate for Western technology and credits in order to counter its increasing backwardness. The Law on Cooperatives enacted in May 1988

8160-449: The USSR's collapse, Russia faced many problems that free market proponents in 1992 did not expect. Among other things, 25% of the population lived below the poverty line, life expectancy had fallen, birthrates were low, and the GDP was halved. There was a sharp increase in economic inequality between 1988/1989 and 1993/1995, with the Gini ratio increasing by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. These problems led to

8296-478: The ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. Massive peaceful protests in the Baltic republics such as the Baltic Way and the Singing Revolution drew international attention and bolstered independence movements in various other regions. The rise of nationalism under freedom of speech soon re-awakened simmering ethnic tensions in various Soviet republics, further discrediting

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8432-411: The adoption of the Constitution are not in conflict with the Constitution, they are still enforced. All changes to the Constitution come into effect when formally issued by the president, unless specified otherwise. With the passage of the 1996 revision of the Constitution, the 1994 law "On the Procedure Governing the Entry into Force of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus" ceased to be enforced. As

8568-447: The aftermath of a failed coup that had attempted to topple the reform-minded Gorbachev. By 1982, the stagnation of the Soviet economy was obvious, as evidenced by the fact that the Soviet Union had been importing grain from the U.S. throughout the 1970s, but the system was so firmly entrenched that any real change seemed impossible. A huge rate of defense spending consumed large parts of the economy. The transition period that separated

8704-535: The authority to collect taxes. The president can appoint and dismiss the heads of the local governments on the approval of the relevant local council of deputies. Section Six lists the office and duties of the prosecutor general (Procurator General in the official translation) and the State Supervisory Committee. The prosecutor general and his appointed assistant prosecutors are tasked with the balanced implementation of national, regional and local laws on all sectors of government and public society. The prosecutor general

8840-410: The capital (Minsk was previously the capital of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic ). Section Two describes rights the government grants to citizens. According to the document, providing and protecting these basic rights, which include the "right to a dignified standard of living, including appropriate food, clothing, housing and likewise a continuous improvement of necessary living conditions",

8976-437: The central government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy. The anti−alcohol campaign reduced tax revenues as well, which in 1982 accounted for about 12% of all state revenue. The elimination of central control over production decisions, especially in the consumer goods sector, led to the breakdown in traditional supplier−producer relationships without contributing to the formation of new ones. Thus, instead of streamlining

9112-411: The collapse. Two approaches were taken. The first is to look at the short term, 1985–1991, emphasizing personalities. external causes and policy mistakes. The second looks at long-term economic, political, cultural, and social structures. Constitution Day Constitution Day is a holiday to honour the constitution of a country . Constitution Day is often celebrated on the anniversary of

9248-432: The communist elite became dissatisfied with him. To proceed with reforms opposed by the majority of the communist party, Gorbachev aimed to consolidate power in a new position, President of the Soviet Union , which was independent from the CPSU and the soviets (councils) and whose holder could be impeached only in case of direct violation of the law. On 15 March 1990, Gorbachev was elected as the first executive president. At

9384-427: The comparatively young Soviet leader would have a PR advantage over President Reagan, who was 20 years his senior. Reagan and Gorbachev met for the first time in Geneva in November. The three weeks preceding the summit meeting were marked by an unprecedented Soviet media campaign against the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), taking advantage of opposition at home in the US to the program. When it finally took place,

9520-457: The consolidation of power by the current president. The constitution was drafted by the Supreme Council of Belarus , the former legislative body of the country and is heavily influenced by Western constitutions. The constitution has been amended thrice under controversial circumstances since the original adoption, in 1996, in 2004 and in 2022. Two referendums that were disputed by independent observers and government opposition leaders increased

9656-449: The department heads within the Central Committee apparatus. As a result, he replaced the aging leadership with younger, more vigorous administrators. But Andropov's ability to reshape the top leadership was constrained by his own age and poor health and the influence of Chernenko, his rival and longtime ally of Brezhnev who had previously supervised personnel matters in the Central Committee. The transition of power from Brezhnev to Andropov

9792-482: The dismantling of the administrative command system in Russia would raise GDP and living standards by allocating resources more efficiently. They also thought the collapse would create new production possibilities by eliminating central planning, substituting a decentralized market system, eliminating huge macroeconomic and structural distortions through liberalization, and providing incentives through privatization. Since

9928-424: The downfall quite cogently: "Gorbachev actually put the sort of final blow to the resistance of the Soviet Union by killing the fear of the people. It was still that this country was governed and kept together, as a structure, as a government structure, by the fear from Stalinist times." To restructure the Soviet administrative command system and implement a transition to a market economy , Yeltsin's shock program

10064-578: The fall of the Soviet Union by encouraging it to overextend its economic base. The proposition that special operations by the CIA in Saudi Arabia affected the prices of Soviet oil was refuted by Marshall Goldman —one of the leading experts on the economy of the Soviet Union—in his latest book. He pointed out that the Saudis decreased their production of oil in 1985 (it reached a 16-year low), whereas

10200-595: The final drafts due to the lack of balance between the two parties and for allowing Vyachaslau Kebich to run for presidential elections in June of that year despite serving in the same role with the SSR. When drafting the Belarus Constitution, the Supreme Council deputies were influenced by the constitutions of various countries, including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , Sweden , and

10336-515: The first Soviet leader to miss the anniversary celebrations of the 1917 revolution that November. He died in February 1984 of kidney failure after disappearing from public view for several months. His most significant legacy to the Soviet Union was his discovery and promotion of Mikhail Gorbachev . Beginning in 1978, Gorbachev advanced in two years through the Kremlin hierarchy to full membership in

10472-618: The first draft was published in December 1991 in order for the Belarusian populace to make comments and suggestions. Professors Gary M. Shaw of Touro College , New York and Russell L. Weaver of the University of Louisville spent time in Belarus in 1993 advising on drafting the constitution on behalf of Central and East European Law Initiative (CEELI), a project of the American Bar Association . The commission submitted

10608-449: The following conditions must be met: The president wishes to hold one, both houses of the National Assembly request to hold one, or the citizens petition for it. If the National Assembly calls for a plebiscite, a majority is needed in both chambers for it to be official. If the citizens request a plebiscite, they must gather 430,000 signatures from eligible voters across the country. Additionally, over 30,000 people from each region must sign

10744-700: The fundamental elements of the Stalinist system, including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production. The value of all consumer goods manufactured in 1990 in retail prices was about 459 billion rubles ($ 2.1 trillion). Nevertheless, the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Tax revenues declined as republic and local governments withheld tax revenues from

10880-529: The government apparatus. On 1 December 1988, the Supreme Soviet amended the Soviet constitution to allow for the establishment of a Congress of People's Deputies as the Soviet Union's new supreme legislative body. Elections to the new Congress of People's Deputies were held throughout the USSR in March and April 1989. Gorbachev, as General Secretary of the Communist Party, could be forced to resign at any moment if

11016-425: The government collapsed. US President Reagan also actively hindered the Soviet Union's ability to sell natural gas to Europe whilst simultaneously actively working to keep gas prices low, which kept the price of Soviet oil low and further starved the Soviet Union of foreign capital. This "long-term strategic offensive," which "contrasts with the essentially reactive and defensive strategy of " containment ", accelerated

11152-414: The government undertakes to show "adherence to values common to all mankind, founding ourselves on our inalienable right to self-determination," which is "supported by the centuries-long history of development of Belarusian statehood." Belarus also pledges to honor the rights and freedoms of its citizens and to maintain a stable government that is run by the people and based on the rule of law . Section One

11288-662: The ideal of a unified Soviet people. One instance occurred in February 1988, when the government in Nagorno-Karabakh , a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR , passed a resolution calling for unification with the Armenian SSR . Violence against local Azerbaijanis was reported on Soviet television, provoking massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of Sumgait . Emboldened by

11424-513: The infusion of democratic elements such as multi-candidate elections into the Soviet political process. A 1987 conference convened by Soviet economist and Gorbachev adviser Leonid Abalkin , concluded: "Deep transformations in the management of the economy cannot be realized without corresponding changes in the political system." In June 1988, at the CPSU's Nineteenth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of

11560-559: The internal affairs of its Warsaw Pact allies (" Sinatra Doctrine "). Gradually, each of the Warsaw Pact countries saw their communist governments fall to popular elections and, in the case of Romania , a violent uprising . By 1990, the governments of Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , East Germany , Hungary , Poland and Romania , all of which had been imposed after World War II , were brought down as revolutions swept Eastern Europe . The Soviet Union also began experiencing upheaval as

11696-467: The late Premier Alexei Kosygin 's initiatives in the mid-1960s . In tandem with such economic experiments, Andropov launched an anti-corruption drive that reached high into the government and party ranks. Unlike Brezhnev, who possessed several mansions and a fleet of luxury cars, he lived quite simply. While visiting Budapest in early 1983, he expressed interest in Hungary 's Goulash Communism and that

11832-460: The liberalized atmosphere of glasnost , public dissatisfaction with economic conditions was much more overt than ever before in the Soviet period. Although perestroika was considered bold in the context of Soviet history, Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not radical enough to restart the country's chronically sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms made some inroads in decentralization, but Gorbachev and his team left intact most of

11968-437: The local regions and cities. The money used in the national budget is acquired from national taxes and fines, and payments made to Belarus by foreign governments. At the end of a fiscal year , the National Assembly must review the budget for the next fiscal year within five months. After the review and passing of the national budget, it is published for public viewing. Local budgets follow the same procedures. The National Bank of

12104-526: The major cities answering questions from ordinary citizens. He became the first leader that spoke with the Soviet people in person. When he made public speeches, he made clear that he was interested in constructive exchanges of ideas instead of merely reciting lengthy platitudes about the excellence of the Soviet system. He also spoke candidly about the slackness and run-down condition of Soviet society in recent years, blaming alcohol abuse , poor workplace discipline, and other factors for these situations. Alcohol

12240-574: The members of the Warsaw Pact countries and instability of its western allies, first indicated by Lech Wałęsa 's 1980 rise to leadership of the trade union Solidarity , accelerated, leaving the Soviet Union unable to depend upon its Eastern European satellite states for protection as a buffer zone. By 1989, following his doctrine of " new political thinking ", Gorbachev had repudiated the Brezhnev Doctrine in favor of non-intervention in

12376-411: The military into a smaller, tighter force based on advanced technology were not considered feasible for the time being. Many, but not all, of the younger army officers appointed during 1985 were proteges of Ogarkov. Gorbachev got off to an excellent start during his first months in power. He projected an aura of youth and dynamism compared to his aged predecessors and made frequent walks in the streets of

12512-425: The national authorities are still in force, even if they had expired or contradict the Constitution. In 2021 a Civil Constitution Commission, appointed by Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya ’s Representative for Constitutional Reform, produced a draft "Constitution for New Belarus". According to the official site of Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya, "the Constitution for New Belarus is a modern European constitution, which will ensure

12648-459: The official media had ignored. Media reports also exposed crimes committed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet regime, such as the gulags , his treaty with Adolf Hitler , and the Great Purges , which had been ignored by the official media. Moreover, the ongoing war in Afghanistan , and the mishandling of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , further damaged the credibility of the Soviet government at

12784-438: The opposition and democratic forces who wanted to close the Supreme Council down for good. A power struggle to determine the relationship between the new executive branch and the legislature caused much of the debate in 1992 and 1993. The former chairman of the Supreme Council, Stanislau Shushkevich , criticized the early drafts due to the amount of power granted to the president. The opposition Belarusian Popular Front criticized

12920-479: The other branches. The government is authorized to pass laws conforming with the provisions of the Constitution, by which it is expected to abide. If the laws do not conform with the Constitution, then they can be declared void. The laws themselves are subject to international law and Belarus is willing to "recognize the supremacy of the universally acknowledged principles of international law and ensure that its laws comply with such principles." The territory of Belarus

13056-418: The peak of oil production was reached in 1980. They increased the production of oil in 1986, reduced it in 1987 with a subsequent increase in 1988, but not to the levels of 1980 when production reached its highest level. The real increase happened in 1990, by which time the Cold War was almost over. In his book he asked why, if Saudi Arabia had such an effect on Soviet oil prices, did prices not fall in 1980 when

13192-470: The people do not like it. The laws that fall in the latter category are considered "ignored" by the legal scholars. In June 1999, a Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers from the United Nations visited Belarus and noted inconsistency between national laws, decrees and the Constitution. The UN rapporteur , Dato Param Cumaraswamy , especially noted that temporary decrees issued by

13328-408: The petition, including the capital Minsk. Once either condition is met, the president must issue a decree setting the date of the national plebiscite. The plebiscite must take place less than three months after the decree was signed. Local cities can hold their own plebiscites if ten percent of the local population ask for it. Section Four, which is divided into four chapters, outlines the functions of

13464-464: The policy of détente, by financially aiding the Mujahideen movement in neighboring Socialist Afghanistan , which served as a pretext for the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan six months later, with the aims of supporting the Afghan government, controlled by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan . Tensions between the superpowers increased during this time, when Carter placed trade embargoes on

13600-471: The political consequences of glasnost reverberated throughout the country. Despite efforts at containment, the upheaval in Eastern Europe inevitably spread to nationalities within the USSR. In elections to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's constituent republics, nationalists as well as radical reformers swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression,

13736-553: The position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985. At 54, Gorbachev was the youngest person since Joseph Stalin to become General Secretary and the country's first head of state born a Soviet citizen instead of a subject of the tsar. During his official confirmation on 11 March, Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko spoke of how the new Soviet leader had filled in for Chernenko as CC Secretariat, and praised his intelligence and flexible, pragmatic ideas instead of rigid adherence to party ideology. Gorbachev

13872-560: The power of the presidency over the government and eliminated the term limits for the presidency. [REDACTED] CIS Member State Parliamentary elections The Belarusian Democratic Republic adopted its first temporary constitution several months after declaring independence from the Russian Empire , on October 11, 1918. In 1919, after the occupation of the country by the Russian Bolsheviks, Belarus became

14008-468: The president cannot continue duties or if the president dies in office. Chapter Four lists the powers and duties of the Parliament of Belarus, which is called the National Assembly . The National Assembly itself is divided into two houses: the lower House of Representatives and the upper Council of the Republic . While each house has its own rules governing how members are elected, members decide on

14144-400: The president could disband parliament if the members violate national law. The vote, which several Supreme Council deputies protested, resulted in 77% in favor of the provision regarding the dismissal of the legislature by the president. Other questions on the ballot, such as the national flag and national emblem , didn't affect the Constitution as a whole, but their status has been decided by

14280-402: The press becoming far less controlled. Thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were also released. Soviet social science became free to explore and publish on many subjects that had previously been off limits, including conducting public opinion polls. The All−Union Center for Public Opinion Research ( VCIOM )—the most prominent of several polling organizations that were started then—

14416-562: The production of oil by Saudi Arabia reached its highest level—three times as much oil as in the mid-eighties—and why did the Saudis wait till 1990 to increase their production, five years after the CIA's supposed intervention? Why didn't the Soviet Union collapse in 1980 then? By the time Gorbachev ushered in the process that would lead to the dismantling of the Soviet administrative command economy through his programs of uskoreniye (speed-up of economic development) and perestroika (political and economic restructuring) announced in 1986,

14552-428: The referendum, so they contend that the results reported by the government are flawed. Two years later, Lukashenko ran in the 2006 election and won 83% of the vote during the first ballot. With no term limits, Lukashenko states that, depending on his health, he will not retire from politics and might run for re-election in 2011. [REDACTED] CIS Member State Parliamentary elections A constitutional referendum

14688-475: The results of the vote. Along with choosing members for the National Assembly, Belarusian voters were presented with a referendum regarding presidential term limits. Before the vote, President Alexander Lukashenko was only allowed to serve two terms before the Constitution required him to step down. The voter turnout for the referendum was nearly 90%, with 77.3% of the voters agreeing to eliminating term limits. The changes were implemented on October 17, 2004. Like

14824-410: The right to vote in elections and plebiscites is extended to those who are above the age of eighteen. During elections and plebiscites, a citizen can vote or not vote without any consequences from the government. The Constitution describes two methods of preventing a citizen from voting. First, a court can issue an order stating that the citizen does not have the mental capacity to understand and to cast

14960-434: The right to vote, housing, compensation for their share of work, and have the ability to move wherever they wish inside Belarus, and have the right to protest against the government. Section Three is divided into two chapters dealing with the organization and running of elections. The first chapter deals with the Belarusian electoral system and the second chapter details the organization of national referendums . In Belarus,

15096-511: The same time, Article 6 of the constitution was changed to deprive the CPSU of a monopoly on political power. Gorbachev's efforts to streamline the Communist system offered promise, but ultimately proved uncontrollable and resulted in a cascade of events that eventually concluded with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Initially intended as tools to bolster the Soviet economy, the policies of perestroika and glasnost soon led to unintended consequences. Relaxation under glasnost resulted in

15232-478: The sheer size of the Soviet economy made strict top-down planning impractical. Changes were needed in a hurry for 1982 had witnessed the country's worst economic performance, with real GDP growth at almost zero percent. Andropov faced a series of foreign policy crises: the hopeless situation of the Soviet army in Afghanistan, threatened revolt in Poland, growing animosity with China, the polarization threat of war in

15368-451: The statehood of Belarus from pro-Russian unity movements, provide a strong head of state that could cure the ailments Belarus would endure in the post-Soviet era, and lay out a compromise between the political factions in Belarus. The constitution is divided in the following way. In the preamble of the Constitution, Belarus assumes the responsibility for its destiny as a member of the international community. To execute this responsibility,

15504-539: The system, Gorbachev's decentralization caused new production bottlenecks. The dissolution of the Soviet Union' was a process of systematic disintegration , which occurred in the economy , social structure and political structure . It resulted in the abolition of the Soviet Federal Government ("the Union center") and independence of the USSR's republics on 26 December 1991. The process was caused by

15640-550: The third and final draft to the Supreme Council, where it was signed on March 15, 1994 by the Speaker of the Supreme Council and Head of State, Myechyslaw Hryb . The gazette Zvezda officially published the Constitution fifteen days later. The Supreme Council passed a second law along with the Constitution, titled the Enactment Law, rendering the 1978 Byelorussian SSR Constitution and the Declaration of State Sovereignty of

15776-414: The transition from an authoritarian to a democratic, parliamentary form of government". Twenty-eight international consultants provided expertise in drafting the constitution. The draft constitution was published on July 14, 2022 on the site kanstytucyja.online. History of the Soviet Union (1985%E2%80%931991) The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991 spans the period from

15912-440: The two superpower leaders established a solid rapport that boded well for the future despite Reagan's refusal to compromise on abandonment of SDI. A joint communique by both parties stated that they were in agreement that nuclear war could not be won by either side and must never be allowed to happen. It was also agreed that Reagan and Gorbachev would carry out two more summit meetings in 1986–87. Jimmy Carter had decisively ended

16048-457: The various bills that could become Belarusian law and approve the nominations of cabinet heads that the president chooses. The Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus , headed by the prime minister , is the body of officials that are heads of various ministries of the Belarusian government. The president appoints each member of the council, but the National Assembly must also approve each member. Council members stays on until their term as

16184-476: The vast majority of "idealistic" reformers gained huge possessions of state property using their positions in the government and became business oligarchs in a manner that appeared antithetical to an emerging democracy. Existing institutions were conspicuously abandoned prior to the establishment of new legal structures of the market economy such as those governing private property, overseeing financial markets, and enforcing taxation. Market economists believed that

16320-475: The vote to dissolve the Supreme Council in 1996 removed Belarus' last democratically elected parliament and installed Lukashenko's hand-picked parliament. While there were claims of manipulation of the elections and the Constitution itself, some parts of the 2004 constitution were supported by key leaders of the Belarusian democratic opposition. In a 2005 interview with Radio Free Europe , presidential candidate Alaksandar Milinkievič stated that Belarus' stance as

16456-483: The vote. An earlier attempt by the Supreme Council to establish their own referendum in September 1996 was struck down as "inconsistent with the Constitution" by the Constitutional Court. The referendum amended the Constitution mostly to strengthen the power of the presidency. Amongst the changes made were the following: 1- The Supreme Council , the unicameral parliament of Belarus, was abolished. The Supreme Council

16592-619: The year for speaking out on discrimination practiced against Jews in education and the professions. Although Chernenko had called for renewed détente with the West, little progress was made towards closing the rift in East−West relations during his rule. The Soviet Union boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, retaliating for the United States-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. In September 1984,

16728-501: Was a particular nag of Gorbachev's, especially as he himself did not drink, and he made one of his major policy aims curbing the consumption of it. In terms of foreign policy, the most important one, relations with the United States, remained twitchy through 1985. In October, Gorbachev made his first visit to a non-communist country when he traveled to France and was warmly received. The fashion-conscious French were also captivated by his wife Raisa and political pundits widely believed that

16864-435: Was aided by a lack of serious competition in the Politburo. He immediately began appointing younger men of his generation to important party posts, including Nikolai Ryzhkov , Secretary of Economics, Viktor Cherbrikov, KGB Chief, Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze (replacing the 75-year-old Gromyko), Secretary of Defense Industries Lev Zaikov  [ ru ] , and Secretary of Construction Boris Yeltsin . Removed from

17000-400: Was employed within days of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The subsidies to money-losing farms and industries were cut, price controls abolished, and the ruble moved towards convertibility . New opportunities for Yeltsin's circle and other entrepreneurs to seize former state property were created, thus restructuring the old state-owned economy within a few months. After obtaining power,

17136-579: Was held in Belarus on 27 February 2022. The referendum was ordered by President Alexander Lukashenko in January 2022. According to political analysts, changes to the Belarusian constitution were intended to solidify the power of Lukashenko's regime after the mass protests in 2020 and 2021 , which challenged his rule and was brutally suppressed by police. More than 35,000 people were arrested, 1,070 of whom are acknowledged political prisoners. The changes to

17272-459: Was in poor health, suffering from emphysema, and unable to play an active role in policy making when he was chosen, after lengthy discussion, to succeed Andropov. But Chernenko's short time in office did bring some significant policy changes. The personnel changes and investigations into corruption undertaken under Andropov's tutelage came to an end. Chernenko advocated more investment in consumer goods and services and in agriculture. He also called for

17408-421: Was notably the first one in Soviet history to occur completely peacefully with no one being imprisoned, killed, or forced from office. Andropov's domestic policy leaned heavily towards restoring discipline and order to Soviet society. He eschewed radical political and economic reforms, promoting instead a small degree of candor in politics and mild economic experiments similar to those that had been associated with

17544-491: Was opened. State archives became more accessible, and some social statistics that had been kept secret became open for research and publication on sensitive subjects such as income disparities, crime, suicide, abortion, and infant mortality. The first center for gender studies was opened within a newly formed Institute for the Socio−Economic Study of Human Population. In January 1987, Gorbachev called for democratization:

17680-489: Was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since Vladimir Lenin 's New Economic Policy , the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. Glasnost resulted in greater freedom of speech and

17816-486: Was raising the military budget to 70 percent of the national budget, and supplying billions of dollars worth of military aid to Syria, Iraq, Libya, South Yemen, the PLO, Cuba, and North Korea. That included tanks and armored troop carriers, hundreds of fighter planes, as well as anti-aircraft systems, artillery systems, and all sorts of high tech equipment for which the USSR was the main supplier for its allies. Andropov's main goal

17952-402: Was replaced by the National Assembly , a bicameral parliament; 2- The term of President Alexander Lukashenko was extended from 1999 until 2001. During the referendum, 84% of the approximately 7.5 million voters approved the amendments. On November 28 of that year, President Lukashenko signed the changes into law. Other results not directly related to the voting included the expanding role of

18088-488: Was still strong and many Germans could not forget the destruction and mass rapes committed by Soviet troops in the closing days of that conflict. This attitude was helped along by the Reagan Administration's comments that a war between NATO and the Warsaw Pact would not necessarily result in the use of nuclear weapons. Andropov's health declined rapidly during the tense summer and fall of 1983, and he became

18224-400: Was succeeded by Nikolai Ryzhkov , and Vasili Kuznetsov , the acting Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , was succeeded by Andrei Gromyko , the former Minister of Foreign Affairs . Further down the chain, up to 40% of the first secretaries of the oblasts (provinces) were replaced with younger, better educated, and more competent men. The defense establishment was also given

18360-422: Was to avoid an open war. In foreign policy, the conflict in Afghanistan continued even though Andropov—who now felt the invasion was a mistake—half-heartedly explored options for a negotiated withdrawal. Andropov's rule was also marked by deterioration of relations with the United States. During a much-publicized "walk in the woods" with Soviet dignitary Yuli Kvitsinsky, American diplomat Paul Nitze suggested

18496-408: Was underlined in June when Vladimir Danchev, a broadcaster for Radio Moscow, referred to the Soviet troops in Afghanistan as "invaders" while conducting English-language broadcasts. After refusing to retract this statement, he was sent to a mental institution for several months. Valery Senderov, a leader of an unofficial union of professional workers, was sentenced to seven years in a labor camp early in

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