The Robert and Renée Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs , also known as the Belfer Center , is a research center located at the Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts , in the United States.
138-612: From 2017 until his death in October 2022, the center was led by director Ash Carter , former U.S. Secretary of Defense and co-director Eric Rosenbach , a former U.S. Assistant Secretary of Defense. Its current executive director is Natalie Colbert. The current director is Meghan O'Sullivan . The Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs is the hub of Harvard Kennedy School's research, teaching, and training in international security and diplomacy, environmental and resource issues, and science and technology policy. A core tenet of
276-718: A Rhodes Scholar and studied at the University of Oxford . He received his Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) in theoretical physics on Hard processes in perturbative QCD in 1979 and was supervised by Christopher Llewellyn Smith . He was a member of St John's College, Oxford . Carter was subsequently a postdoctoral fellow research associate in theoretical physics at Rockefeller University from 1979 to 1980, studying time-reversal invariance and dynamical symmetry breaking . He coauthored two papers on CP violations in B meson decays with A. I. Sanda , which were used as one of theoretical basis to build B factories . Carter
414-735: A heart attack at his home in Boston, on October 24, 2022, at age 68. Carter received the Ten Outstanding Young Americans award from the United States Junior Chamber in 1987. For his service to national security, Carter was awarded the DOD's highest civilian medal, the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service , five times. For critical liaison efforts with the chairman of
552-527: A Philadelphia car wash, he was fired for "wise-mouthing the owner." Carter was educated at Highland Elementary School (class of 1966) and at Abington Senior High School (class of 1972) in Abington. In high school, he was a wrestler, lacrosse player, cross-country runner, and president of the Honor Society. He was inducted into Abington Senior High School's Hall of Fame in 1989. Carter attended
690-550: A bottleneck at the Rigolets Pass, forcing it farther inland. The range of surge levels in eastern St. Tammany Parish is estimated at 13–16 feet (4.0–4.9 m), not including wave action. Hard-hit St. Bernard Parish was flooded because of breaching of the levees that contained a navigation channel called the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MR-GO) and the breach of the 40 Arpent canal levee that
828-609: A closed briefing for the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee. Some senators eventually voted in favor of the deal; others opposed, but all appreciated having a clear and comprehensive analysis of the agreement to guide their vote.” Recognizing that climate change is happening faster in the Arctic than anywhere else in the world and determining that it required further study, the Belfer Center created
966-528: A concise review of the complex agreement and the accompanying UN Security Council Resolution 2231, the Belfer Center compiled and published The Iran Nuclear Deal: A Definitive Guide and distributed it to all members of Congress. Led by Gary Samore , then Executive Director for Research at the Center, the team of experts who prepared the guide included Democrats, Republicans, independents, and internationals. Samore said in 2024, “I remember passing out copies at
1104-532: A former Belfer Center director, is connected worldwide with “ soft power ,” a term he coined in the late 1980s and refined in his books, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (1990), and Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (2004). Soft power, Nye wrote, “depends on the currency of attraction rather than force or payoffs; soft power depends in part on how we frame our own objectives.” Leaders from China to Europe often cite
1242-593: A groundswell of new research and corrected the conventional wisdom: Interdependence has costs as well as benefits. During the Cold War, Harvard biochemist Paul M. Doty was deeply concerned about the tense relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. Doty collaborated with Soviet scientists who shared his worries about the potential for nuclear escalation. In the early 1970s, Doty recognized
1380-419: A growing emphasis on the militarization of space. Its researchers also delved into the security implications of competition over energy resources, highlighted by a U.S. Department of Energy-sponsored workshop on energy and security. Additionally, they began exploring the challenges and opportunities presented by technological advancements. The Belfer Center played a pivotal role in efforts to dismantle and secure
1518-622: A hurricane. After briefly weakening to tropical storm strength over southern Florida, Katrina entered the Gulf of Mexico on August 26 and rapidly intensified . The storm strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico before weakening to a high-end Category 3 hurricane at its second landfall on August 29 over southeast Louisiana and Mississippi . The largest loss of life in Hurricane Katrina
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#17327766889531656-660: A mandatory evacuation was ordered for vulnerable housing in Martin County . Shelters were opened across the region. Officials closed the Miami International Airport , Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport , Key West International Airport , and Florida Keys Marathon Airport due to the storm. In Monroe and Collier counties, schools were closed, and a shelter was opened in Immokalee . On August 28, Alabama Governor Bob Riley declared
1794-436: A massive national and international response effort, including federal, local, and private rescue operations to evacuate those displaced from the city in the following weeks. After the storm, multiple investigations concluded that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , which had designed and built the region's levees decades earlier, was responsible for the failure of the flood-control systems. However, federal courts later ruled that
1932-647: A more secure, peaceful world. In 2012, the Stanton Foundation provided funds for a paid Wikipedian in residence at the Belfer Center. This became controversial due to links between the Belfer Center and the Stanton Foundation (the directors of each are a married couple) and public concerns about conflict-of-interest editing on Misplaced Pages . The center is organized into subgroups with specific areas of focus. A 2021 investigative report by student group Fossil Fuel Divest Harvard found that many of
2070-518: A news conference at 10 am. EDT on August 28, shortly after Katrina was upgraded to a Category 5 storm, New Orleans mayor Ray Nagin ordered the first-ever mandatory evacuation of the city, calling Katrina "a storm that most of us have long feared". The city government also established several "refuges of last resort" for citizens who could not leave the city, including the massive Louisiana Superdome , which sheltered approximately 26,000 people and provided them with food and water for several days as
2208-522: A peninsula between the Back Bay and the coast, was particularly hard hit, especially the low-lying Point Cadet area. In Jackson County, storm surge flowed up the wide river estuary , with the combined surge and freshwater flooding cutting the county in half. Remarkably, over 90% of Pascagoula, the easternmost coastal city in Mississippi, and about 75 miles (120 km) east of Katrina's landfall near
2346-785: A report for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace advocating use or threat of force to prevent Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons . Carter had supported diplomacy with Iran and written about methods of containing a nuclear-armed Tehran. Carter was a supporter of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , as well as an advocate of "preventative" invasions of North Korea and Iran . In response to increased tension in Ukraine , Carter considered deployment of ground-launched cruise missiles in Europe that could pre-emptively destroy Russian weapons. In January 2021, Carter, alongside all of
2484-478: A result of Hurricane Katrina and two people died in a traffic accident in the state. Residents in some areas, such as Selma, were without power for several days. Northern and central Georgia were affected by heavy rains and strong winds from Hurricane Katrina as the storm moved inland, with more than 3 inches (76 mm) of rain falling in several areas. At least 18 tornadoes formed in Georgia on August 29, 2005,
2622-497: A result of Hurricane Katrina. Katrina's storm surge inundated all parishes surrounding Lake Pontchartrain, including St. Tammany , Tangipahoa, St. John the Baptist , and St. Charles Parishes. St. Tammany Parish received a two-part storm surge. The first surge came as Lake Pontchartrain rose and the storm blew water from the Gulf of Mexico into the lake. The second came as the eye of Katrina passed, westerly winds pushed water into
2760-403: A significant gap in academic offerings—universities were not providing courses on arms control and international security, crucial for preparing future experts in these fields. Motivated by this, Doty envisioned a program at Harvard dedicated to research and education in arms control and related issues at the intersection of science and international affairs. In 1973, Doty subsequently founded
2898-415: A state of emergency for the approaching Hurricane Katrina. On the same day, he requested President Bush to declare "expedited major disaster declaration" for six counties of South Alabama, which was quickly approved. Three hundred fifty national guardsmen were called on duty by August 30. The state of Mississippi activated its National Guard on August 26 in preparation for the storm's landfall. Additionally,
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#17327766889533036-511: A state of emergency in selected regions of Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi on August 27. "On Sunday, August 28, President Bush spoke with Governor Blanco to encourage her to order a mandatory evacuation of New Orleans." However, during the testimony by former Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) chief Michael Brown before a U.S. House subcommittee on September 26, Representative Stephen Buyer (R-IN) inquired as to why Bush's declaration of state of emergency of August 27 had not included
3174-630: A strong Category 3 hurricane. Although the storm surge to the east of the path of the eye in Mississippi was higher, a significant surge affected the Louisiana coast. The height of the surge is uncertain because of a lack of data, although a tide gauge in Plaquemines Parish indicated a storm tide in excess of 14 feet (4.3 m), and a 12-foot (3.7 m) storm surge was recorded in Grand Isle . The hurricane made its final landfall near
3312-580: Is William Stanley Carter Jr., a World War II veteran, United States Navy neurologist and psychiatrist, and department chairman at Abington Memorial Hospital for 30 years. His mother is Anne Baldwin Carter, an English teacher. He has three siblings, including children's book author Cynthia DeFelice . As a child he was nicknamed Ash and Stoobie. Carter was raised in Abington, Pennsylvania , on Wheatsheaf Lane. At age eleven, working at his first job at
3450-500: Is almost impossible to determine the exact cause of some of the fatalities. A 2008 report by the Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness journal indicates that 966 deaths can be directly attributed to the storm in Louisiana, including out of state evacuees, and another 20 indirectly (such as firearm-related deaths and gas poisoning). Due to uncertain causes of death with 454 evacuees, an upper-bound of 1,440
3588-626: Is noted in the paper. A follow-up study by the Louisiana Department of Health & Hospitals determined that the storm was directly responsible for 1,170 fatalities in Louisiana. Federal disaster declarations covered 90,000 square miles (230,000 km ) of the United States, an area almost as large as the United Kingdom. The hurricane left an estimated three million people without electricity. On September 3, 2005, Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff described
3726-521: The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . It was also the fourth-most intense Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the contiguous United States , gauged by barometric pressure. Katrina formed on August 23, 2005, with the merger of a tropical wave and the remnants of Tropical Depression Ten . Early the following day, the depression intensified into a tropical storm and headed generally westward toward Florida. On August 25, two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach , it strengthened into
3864-851: The Belfer Center for Science & International Affairs at Harvard Kennedy School . Carter began his career as a physicist . After a brief experience as an analyst for the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment , he switched careers to public policy. He joined the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1984 and became chair of the International & Global Affairs faculty. Carter served as Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy during President Clinton's first term , from 1993 to 1996, responsible for policy regarding
4002-793: The Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government from 1988 to 1990, and director of the center from 1990 to 1993. At the Kennedy School, he became chair of the International and Global Affairs faculty and Ford Foundation Professor of Science and International Affairs. He concurrently was co-director of the Preventive Defense Project of Harvard and Stanford Universities. From 1993 to 1996, Carter served as assistant secretary of defense for international security policy during President Bill Clinton's first term. He
4140-715: The International Security Program , the oldest and largest of our fellowship cohorts. Center faculty, fellows, and staff have been called to serve in administrations within the United States and internationally. Among those in the current Biden administration are Jake Sullivan , National Security Advisor, Nicholas Burns , Ambassador to China; Samantha Power , Administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID); and Bonnie Jenkins , Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security Affairs. Former fellows serving in government and policy-related research centers in other parts of
4278-726: The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the geographic combatant commanders, he was awarded the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Joint Distinguished Civilian Service Award in 2013 and the Defense Intelligence Medal for his contributions to intelligence. In addition to authoring numerous articles, scientific publications, government studies, and Congressional testimonies, Carter co-edited and co-authored 11 books: Hurricane Katrina Hurricane Katrina
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4416-539: The Lesser Antilles . On August 23, the disturbance organized into Tropical Depression Twelve over the southeastern Bahamas. The storm strengthened into Tropical Storm Katrina on the morning of August 24. The tropical storm moved towards Florida and became a hurricane only two hours before making landfall between Hallandale Beach and Aventura on the morning of August 25. The storm weakened over land, but it regained hurricane status about one hour after entering
4554-504: The Loop Current , from a Category 3 hurricane to a Category 5 hurricane in just nine hours. After attaining Category 5 hurricane status on the morning of August 28, Katrina reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC , with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) and a minimum central pressure of 902 mbar (26.6 inHg ). The pressure measurement made Katrina the fifth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record at
4692-701: The Miami metropolitan area , with a peak total of 16.43 in (417 mm) in Perrine . As a result, local flooding occurred in Miami-Dade County , damaging approximately 100 homes. Farther south in the Florida Keys, a tornado was spawned in Marathon on August 26. The tornado damaged a hangar at the airport there and caused an estimated $ 5 million in damage. The rains caused flooding, and
4830-540: The United States Coast Guard (USCG), National Hurricane Center (NHC), and National Weather Service (NWS), were commended for their actions, with the NHC being particularly praised for its accurate forecasts well in advance. Katrina was the earliest 11th named storm on record before being surpassed by Tropical Storm Kyle on August 14, 2020. The destruction and loss of life caused by the storm prompted
4968-713: The University of Edinburgh in Scotland in 1975. In 1976, Carter completed his Bachelor of Arts (BA) in his double-major of physics and medieval history at Yale College , summa cum laude , Phi Beta Kappa . His senior thesis, "Quarks, Charm and the Psi Particle", was published in Yale Scientific in 1975. He was also an experimental research associate at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in 1975 (where he worked on quark research) and at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1976. Carter then became
5106-549: The federally built levee system protecting metro New Orleans and the failure of the 40 Arpent Canal levee. Failures occurred in New Orleans and surrounding communities, especially St. Bernard Parish. The Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MR-GO) breached its levees in approximately 20 places, flooding much of eastern New Orleans, most of St. Bernard Parish and the East Bank of Plaquemines Parish . The major levee breaches in
5244-515: The 'Shift to Asia' initiative of President Obama was a priority that would not be affected by the budget sequestration in 2013 . Carter noted that The Shift to Asia was principally an economic matter with new security implications. India, Australia, and New Zealand were mentioned as forthcoming security partners. His Pentagon arms-control responsibilities included matters involving the START II , ABM , CFE, and other arms-control treaties. Carter
5382-628: The 9/11 Commission) published an article on "catastrophic terrorism" in Foreign Affairs . From 1998 to 2000, he was deputy to William J. Perry at the North Korea Policy Review and traveled with him to Pyongyang . In 2001–02, he served on the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Science and Technology for Countering Terrorism, and advised on the creation of the Department of Homeland Security . Carter
5520-532: The Arctic Initiative in 2017. Since its launch, the Initiative has established itself as a pivotal player in tackling the challenges of Arctic climate change and its implications for the rest of the world. One of the specific areas our Arctic Initiative team is tackling is permafrost thaw, which is accelerating global warming and requiring much greater reductions in human emissions to stabilize
5658-706: The Arctic, student-oriented Arctic Innovation Labs, and workshops that specifically focus on Indigenous youth. Professor Graham Allison , who heads the Avoiding Great Power Wars Project, met in March 2024 with China’s President Xi Jinping . Allison’s primary purpose in meeting with Xi was to discuss how to avoid a war that neither country would survive. President Xi and his team had expressed special interest in Allison’s book Destined for War: Can
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5796-657: The Bay St. Louis–Pass Christian bridge, and the Biloxi– Ocean Springs bridge. In addition, the eastbound span of the I-10 bridge over the Pascagoula River estuary was damaged. In the weeks after the storm, with the connectivity of the coastal U.S. Highway 90 shattered, traffic traveling parallel to the coast was reduced first to State Road 11 (parallel to I-10) then to two lanes on the remaining I-10 span when it
5934-630: The Belfer Center as the Program for Science and International Affairs within Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences . Following a grant from the Ford Foundation soon after, the program was re-established as the Center for Science and International Affairs, becoming the first permanent research center at the newly formed School of Government. Throughout the early 1980s, the Belfer Center intensified its focus on arms control and disarmament, with
6072-465: The Belfer Center’s mission is to educate and train the next generation of experts and leaders in science and international affairs. In the decades since the Center's inception, more than 1000 fellows, graduating students, faculty and staff have moved on to influential positions in government, academia, and other sectors in the U.S. and abroad. A significant portion of Belfer Center alums stem from
6210-526: The Center's Broadmoor Project: New Orleans Recovery. The Project was launched in 2006 to work with residents of New Orleans’ hard-hit Broadmoor community to design and implement a strategy for their post-Katrina recovery. Graduate students from the Kennedy School and other parts of Harvard put their governance and planning skills into action. They trained and assisted Broadmoor residents in preparing plans to rebuild their community, tracking displaced residents, and writing funding proposals. The Project helped bring
6348-636: The Cochrane Bridge just outside Mobile. No significant damage resulted to the bridge and it was soon reopened. The damage on Dauphin Island was severe, with the surge destroying many houses and cutting a new canal through the western portion of the island. An offshore oil rig also became grounded on the island. As in Mississippi, the storm surge caused significant beach erosion along the Alabama coastline. More than 600,000 people lost power in Alabama as
6486-714: The Corps could not be held financially liable due to sovereign immunity in the Flood Control Act of 1928 . The emergency response from federal, state, and local governments was widely criticized, leading to the resignation of Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) director Michael D. Brown and New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) Superintendent Eddie Compass . Many other government officials faced criticism for their responses, especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin , Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco , and President George W. Bush . However, several agencies, such as
6624-696: The DOD Distinguished Public Service Medal . He had also received the CJCS Joint Distinguished Civilian Service Award , and the Defense Intelligence Medal for his contributions to intelligence. Carter was author or co-author of eleven books and more than 100 articles on physics, technology, national security, and management. Ashton Baldwin Carter was born on September 24, 1954, in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania. His father
6762-512: The Earth's temperature. In April 2022, we launched Permafrost Pathways , in conjunction with two other organizations, with the goal of informing and developing adaptation and mitigation strategies that address the local and global impacts of Arctic permafrost thaw. Along with its research and policy engagement, the Arctic Initiative is helping train the next generation of Arctic leaders. The Initiative has established Harvard Kennedy School courses on
6900-576: The Gulf Coast had been shut down, including all freight and Amtrak rail traffic into the evacuation areas as well as the Waterford Nuclear Generating Station . Since Hurricane Katrina, Amtrak's Sunset Limited service has never been restored past New Orleans. In Louisiana, the state's hurricane evacuation plan calls for local governments in areas along and near the coast to evacuate in three phases, starting with
7038-597: The Gulf Coast were covered under a voluntary or mandatory evacuation order. On the afternoon of August 26, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) realized that Katrina had yet to make the turn toward the Florida Panhandle and ended up revising the predicted track of the storm from the panhandle to the Mississippi coast. The National Weather Service's New Orleans/Baton Rouge office issued a vividly worded bulletin on August 28 predicting that
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#17327766889537176-469: The Gulf of Mexico, and it continued strengthening over open waters. On August 27, the storm reached Category 3 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale , becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle disrupted the intensification but caused the storm to nearly double in size. Thereafter, Katrina rapidly intensified over the "unusually warm" waters of
7314-462: The I-10 Twin Span Bridge traveling eastbound towards Slidell, Louisiana had collapsed. Both the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway and the Crescent City Connection only carried emergency traffic. However, access to downtown New Orleans and the "shelter of last resort" at the Convention Center was never closed because River Road in Jefferson Parish and Leake Avenue and Tchoupitoulas Street in New Orleans were not flooded, and would have allowed access throughout
7452-513: The Louisiana-Mississippi border was flooded from storm surge at the height of the storm. Other large Jackson County neighborhoods such as Porteaux Bay and Gulf Hills were severely damaged with large portions being completely destroyed, and St. Martin was hard hit; Ocean Springs, Moss Point , Gautier and Escatawpa also suffered major surge damage. Mississippi Emergency Management Agency officials also recorded deaths in Forrest , Hinds , Warren , and Leake counties. Over 900,000 people throughout
7590-476: The Miami area. Cruise ships altered their paths due to seaports in southeastern Florida closing. Officials in Miami-Dade County advised residents in mobile homes or with special needs to evacuate. To the north in Broward County, residents east of the Intracoastal Waterway or in mobile homes were advised to leave their homes. Evacuation orders were issued for offshore islands in Palm Beach County , and for residents in mobile homes south of Lantana Road. Additionally,
7728-454: The New Orleans region prior to the mandatory evacuation. Aircrews from the Aviation Training Center, in Mobile, staged rescue aircraft from Texas to Florida. All aircraft were returning towards the Gulf of Mexico by the afternoon of August 29. Aircrews , many of whom lost their homes during the hurricane, began a round-the-clock rescue effort in New Orleans, and along the Mississippi and Alabama coastlines. President George W. Bush declared
7866-473: The Nuclear Arsenal in a Disintegrating Soviet Union (1991) became known simply as the “Harvard Report.” On November 19, U.S. Senators Sam Nunn (D) and Richard Lugar (R) invited then Center Director Ash Carter to give a briefing on the Harvard report and asked him to help draft legislation. With unprecedented speed, Congress passed the Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991 (Nunn-Lugar Act) on November 26, 1991, authorizing $ 400 million to help
8004-479: The People's Republic of China to halt its rapid island-building in the South China Sea . In October 2015, Carter condemned Russian air strikes against ISIL and other rebel groups in Syria . On October 8, 2015, Carter, speaking at a meeting of NATO defense ministers in Brussels, said he believed Russia would soon start paying the price for its military intervention in Syria in the form of reprisal attacks and casualties. A controversy arose in December 2015 when it
8142-616: The Russian invasion, further underscoring its pivotal role in global affairs. In 2023, the Belfer Center celebrated its 50th anniversary. The Belfer Center Board of Directors benefits from the experience of Harvard-affiliated scholars and senior-level staff, who guide their activities and mission to advance research, ideas, and leadership for a more secure, peaceful world. The Belfer Center has an international advisory board of prestigious senior business leaders and former government officials who care deeply about - and financially support - its mission to advance research, ideas, and leadership for
8280-442: The Senate Foreign Relations Committee's Policy Advisory Group; a consultant to the Defense Science Board; a member of the National Missile Defense White Team, and a member of the National Academy of Sciences Committee on International Security and Arms Control. He had testified frequently before the armed services, foreign relations, and homeland security committees of both houses of Congress. In addition to his public service, Carter
8418-438: The Soviet Union move, disable, or destroy many of its nuclear weapons. Ash Carter , along with the Center’s Graham Allison , Elizabeth Sherwood (Randall), and Laura Holgate were later called to Washington to put the plan into action. Few topics in international politics are discussed as widely and intensely as the uses and expressions of power. Harvard University Distinguished Service Professor Joseph S. Nye , also
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#17327766889538556-526: The Superdome, only six deaths were confirmed there, with four of these originating from natural causes , one from a drug overdose, and one a suicide. At the Convention Center, four bodies were recovered. One of the four is believed to be the result of a homicide. There is evidence that many prisoners were abandoned in their cells during the storm, while the guards sought shelter. Hundreds of prisoners were later registered as "unaccounted for". The Gulf coast of Mississippi suffered extremely severe damage from
8694-467: The U.S. Belfer Center experts informed U.S. congressional leaders with balanced assessments of the strengths and weaknesses of the 2015 Iran nuclear deal. The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) -- an agreement between Iran and the U.S., U.K., EU, China, France, Germany, and the Russian Federation -- was designed to place restrictions on Iran’s nuclear program and include monitoring of Iran’s nuclear activities. To provide Congress with
8832-409: The U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, in St. Bernard Parish, 81% (20,229) of the housing units were damaged. In St. Tammany Parish, 70% (48,792) were damaged and in Plaquemines Parish 80% (7,212) were damaged. In addition, the combined effect of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita was the destruction of an estimated 562 square kilometres (217 sq mi) of coastal wetlands in Louisiana. As
8970-410: The U.S. and China Escape Thucydides’s Trap ? which argues that “an irresistible rising China is on course to collide with an immovable America.” The likely result of this competition would be war, according to the historian Thucydides . The Belfer Center's Avoiding Great Power War Project conducted a major study on the competition between China and the U.S. over the past 20 years. They study
9108-423: The U.S. and around the world. Following the 2016 U.S. presidential election, which raised serious concerns about the security of the 2020 elections, the Belfer Center launched the Defending Digital Democracy Project (D3P) to identify and recommend strategies, tools, and technology to protect democratic processes and systems from cyber and information attacks. The Project prepared and trained election officials across
9246-438: The U.S. government and played leading roles on the 9/11 Commission. In 2015, President Barack Obama appointed Ash Carter the 25th U.S. Secretary of Defense. A leading voice in national and international security, Secretary Carter spent his career at the Belfer Center and in public service, where he leveraged his expertise at the intersection of science and technology, global strategy, and policy. His appointment underscored
9384-425: The United States. The death toll from Katrina is uncertain, with reports differing by hundreds. According to the National Hurricane Center, 1,836 fatalities can be attributed to the storm: one in Kentucky , two each in Alabama, Georgia , and Ohio , 14 in Florida, 238 in Mississippi, and 1,577 in Louisiana. However, 135 people remain categorized as missing in Louisiana, and many of the deaths are indirect, but it
9522-443: The Web of Science Journal Citation Reports. It has ranked in the top 5 every year since 1996, and has ranked 1st 10 times. The journal has published numerous articles that have played important roles in scholarly and policy debates since the journal’s inception. A recent example is “Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion” by Henry Farrell and Abraham L. Newman (Summer 2019). The article drove
9660-463: The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as "probably the worst catastrophe or set of catastrophes" in the country's history, referring to the hurricane itself plus the flooding of New Orleans. Even in 2010, debris remained in some coastal communities. Before striking South Florida, Katrina traversed the Bahamas as a tropical storm. However, minimal impact was reported, with only "fresh breezes" on various islands. Although Hurricane Katrina stayed well to
9798-463: The airport on September 13 and regular carrier operations resumed in early October. Levee breaches in New Orleans also caused a significant number of deaths, with over 700 bodies recovered in New Orleans by October 23, 2005. Some survivors and evacuees reported seeing dead bodies lying in city streets and floating in still-flooded sections, especially in the east of the city. The advanced state of decomposition of many corpses, some of which were left in
9936-463: The area would be "uninhabitable for weeks" after "devastating damage" caused by Katrina, which at that time rivaled the intensity of Hurricane Camille . During video conferences involving the president later that day and on August 29, NHC director Max Mayfield expressed concern that Katrina might push its storm surge over the city's levees and flood walls. In one conference, he stated, "I do not think anyone can tell you with confidence right now whether
10074-427: The ban of transgender officers in the military . In 2016, Carter opened all military occupations and positions to women without exception. This marked the first time in U.S. history that women with the appropriate qualifications would be allowed to serve in military roles such as infantry, armor, reconnaissance, and special operations units. For his service to national security, Carter had on five occasions been awarded
10212-541: The center and the storm's central pressure was 920 mbar (27 inHg). After moving over southeastern Louisiana and Breton Sound , it made its third and final landfall near the Louisiana–Mississippi border with 120 mph (190 km/h) sustained winds, still at a mid-range Category 3 hurricane intensity. Katrina maintained strength well into Mississippi, finally losing hurricane strength more than 150 miles (240 km) inland near Meridian, Mississippi . It
10350-515: The center was renamed as the Robert and Renée Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs in honor of Robert A. Belfer , founder of Belco Oil & Gas Corporation. Following the September 11th attacks, they became an immediate resource for terrorism-related information and analysis for policymakers and journalists. Belfer Center experts were appointed to high-level security positions in
10488-421: The center's climate initiatives were funded in part by fossil fuel companies, and that the center had allegedly taken several steps to cover up that fact. Ash Carter Ashton Baldwin Carter (September 24, 1954 – October 24, 2022) was an American government official and academic who served as the 25th United States secretary of defense from February 2015 to January 2017. He later served as director of
10626-469: The center's significant influence on U.S. defense and security policy. Drawing on their historical focus on mitigating global security threats through rigorous research and policy recommendations, the Belfer Center emerged as a necessary voice in shaping the understanding of the war in Ukraine. In October 2022, they hosted President Volodymyr Zelenskyy , marking one of his first U.S. engagements following
10764-527: The city included breaches at the 17th Street Canal levee, the London Avenue Canal , and the wide, navigable Industrial Canal , which left approximately 80% of the city flooded. Most of the major roads traveling into and out of the city were damaged. The only major intact highway routes out of the city were the westbound Crescent City Connection and the Huey P. Long Bridge, as large portions of
10902-484: The city. A June 2007 report by the American Society of Civil Engineers indicated that two-thirds of the flooding was caused by the multiple failures of the city's floodwalls. The storm surge also devastated the coasts of Mississippi and Alabama, making Katrina one of the most destructive hurricanes, the costliest natural disaster in the history of the United States (tied with Hurricane Harvey in 2017), and
11040-495: The coastal communities of Clermont Harbor and Waveland, much of Bay St. Louis, and flowed up the Jourdan River, flooding Diamondhead and Kiln . In Harrison County, Pass Christian was completely inundated, along with a narrow strip of land to the east along the coast, which includes the cities of Long Beach and Gulfport; the flooding was more extensive in communities such as D'Iberville, which borders Back Bay. Biloxi , on
11178-410: The coastal parishes of Orleans, Jefferson, and Plaquemines. The declaration actually did not include any of Louisiana's coastal parishes, whereas the coastal counties were included in the declarations for Mississippi and Alabama . Brown testified that this was because Louisiana Governor Blanco had not included those parishes in her initial request for aid, a decision that he found "shocking". After
11316-615: The combination of rains and winds downed trees and power lines, leaving 1.45 million people without power. Damage in South Florida was estimated at $ 523 million, mostly as a result of crop damage. Twelve deaths occurred in South Florida, of which three were caused by downed trees in Broward County, three from drowning in Miami-Dade County, three were from carbon monoxide poisoning caused by generators, one
11454-501: The community back to life and facilitated opportunities for Broadmoor leaders to enhance their skills through Kennedy School executive education programs, including LaToya Cantrell , who headed the Broadmoor Neighborhood Association and is now Mayor of New Orleans. The highly successful initiative has been recognized as a model for best practices in disaster recovery and emulated elsewhere throughout
11592-401: The computer models had shifted the potential path of Katrina 150 miles (240 km) westward from the Florida Panhandle, putting the city of New Orleans directly in the center of their track probabilities; the chances of a direct hit were forecast at 17%, with strike probability rising to 29% by August 28. This scenario was considered a potential catastrophe because some parts of New Orleans and
11730-570: The country to secure their procedures and processes against attacks. D3P also helped shape election security legislation in 2018 and put many of its alumni into the cyber security space. D3P was led by Eric Rosenbach , along with Co-Directors Robby Mook and Matt Rhoades , former campaign managers for Hillary Clinton and Mitt Romney . Through a series of playbooks and tabletop exercises designed for state and local election officials and political campaigns, D3P developed practical guidance to improve election security and integrity across
11868-601: The deadliest hurricane since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane . The total damage from Katrina is estimated at $ 125 billion (2005 U.S. dollars). However, in February 2021, a severe winter storm struck the United States, causing a major power failure in Houston, which caused at least $ 195 billion (2021 USD) in damage in Texas. It surpassed both Katrina and Harvey to become the single-costliest natural disaster recorded in
12006-625: The establishment of defense and intelligence relationships with former Soviet countries in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union and its nuclear arsenal, and was chairman of NATO 's High Level Group. He was also responsible for the Counter proliferation Initiative, control of sensitive U.S. exports, and negotiations that led to the deployment of Russian troops as part of the Bosnia Peace Plan Implementation Force . From April 2009 to October 2011, Carter
12144-444: The eye of Hurricane Katrina swept to the northeast, it subjected the city to hurricane conditions for hours. Although power failures prevented accurate measurement of wind speeds in New Orleans, there were a few measurements of hurricane-force winds; based on this information, the NHC concluded that much of the city likely experienced sustained winds of Category 1 or 2 hurricane strength. Katrina's storm surge caused 53 levee breaches in
12282-460: The former Soviet states, strategic affairs, and nuclear weapons. During President Obama's first term , he served first as Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics and then Deputy Secretary of Defense until December 2013. In February 2015, he replaced Chuck Hagel as Secretary of Defense and served until the end of the Obama administration. During his tenure, he ended
12420-470: The hazardous nuclear, chemical, and biological remnants of the Soviet Union. The Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Act, a direct result of its work, became one of the most significant national security initiatives since World War II. Belfer supported the transition to a cooperative security order in the post-Cold War era, strengthened institutions within newly independent states, and worked to prevent nuclear terrorism. In 1997, following further endowment,
12558-486: The hearing, Blanco released a copy of her letter, which showed she had requested assistance for "all the southeastern parishes including the City of New Orleans" as well as specifically named 14 parishes, including Jefferson, Orleans, St. Bernard, and Plaquemines. Voluntary and mandatory evacuations were issued for large areas of southeast Louisiana as well as coastal Mississippi and Alabama. About 1.2 million residents of
12696-551: The hotel's glass exterior was completely sheared off. The Superdome , which was sheltering many people who had not evacuated, sustained significant damage. Two sections of the Superdome's roof were compromised and the dome's waterproof membrane was essentially peeled off. Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport was closed before the storm but did not flood. On August 30, it was reopened to humanitarian and rescue operations. Limited commercial passenger service resumed at
12834-967: The immediate coast 50 hours before the start of tropical-storm-force winds. Persons in areas designated Phase II begin evacuating 40 hours before the onset of tropical storm winds and those in Phase III areas (including New Orleans) evacuate 30 hours before the start of such winds. Many private caregiving facilities that relied on bus companies and ambulance services for evacuation were unable to evacuate their charges because they waited too long. Louisiana's Emergency Operations Plan Supplement 1C (Part II, Section II, Paragraph D) calls for use of school and other public buses in evacuations. Although buses that later flooded were available to transport those dependent on public transportation, not enough bus drivers were available to drive them since Governor Blanco did not sign an emergency waiver to allow any licensed driver to transport evacuees on school buses. By August 26, many of
12972-483: The immediate post-storm emergency period. On August 29, at 7:40 am. CDT, it was reported that most of the windows on the north side of the Hyatt Regency New Orleans had been blown out, and many other high rise buildings had extensive window damage. The Hyatt was the most severely damaged hotel in the city, with beds reported to be flying out of the windows. Insulation tubes were exposed as
13110-441: The impact of Hurricane Katrina on August 29, leaving 238 people dead, 67 missing, and billions of dollars in damage: bridges, barges, boats, piers, houses, and cars were washed inland. Katrina traveled up the entire state; as a result, all 82 counties in Mississippi were declared disaster areas for federal assistance, 47 for full assistance. After making a brief initial landfall in Louisiana, Katrina had made its final landfall near
13248-468: The levees will be topped or not, but that's obviously a very, very great concern." In Florida, Governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency on August 24 in advance of Hurricane Katrina's landfall. By the following day, Florida's Emergency Operations Center was activated in Tallahassee to monitor the progress of the hurricane. Before Katrina moved ashore, schools and businesses were closed in
13386-464: The majority of the state. Katrina caused eleven tornadoes in Mississippi on August 29, some of which damaged trees and power lines. Battered by wind, rain and storm surge, some beachfront neighborhoods were completely leveled. Preliminary estimates by Mississippi officials calculated that 90% of the structures within half a mile of the coastline were completely destroyed, and that storm surges traveled as much as 6 miles (10 km) inland in portions of
13524-399: The metro area are below sea level. Since the storm surge produced by the hurricane's right-front quadrant (containing the strongest winds) was forecast to be 28 feet (8.5 m), while the levees offered protection to 23 feet (7.0 m), emergency management officials in New Orleans feared that the storm surge could go over the tops of levees protecting the city, causing major flooding. At
13662-735: The military. From 1990 to 1993, Carter was chairman of the editorial board of International Security . Previously, he held positions at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment , and Rockefeller University . In 1997, Carter and former CIA director John M. Deutch co-chaired the Catastrophic Terrorism Study Group which urged greater attention to terrorism. In 1998, Carter, Deutch, and Philip Zelikow (later executive director of
13800-515: The most on record in that state for one day in August. The most serious of these tornadoes was an F2 tornado which affected Heard County and Carroll County . This tornado caused three injuries and one fatality and damaged several houses. The other tornadoes caused significant damages to buildings and agricultural facilities. In addition to the fatality caused by the F2 tornado, there was another fatality in
13938-487: The mouth of the Pearl River , with the eye straddling St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana , and Hancock County, Mississippi , on the morning of August 29 at about 9:45 am. CDT. Hurricane Katrina also brought heavy rain to Louisiana, with 8–10 inches (200–250 mm) falling on a wide swath of the eastern part of the state. In the area around Slidell , the rainfall was even higher, and the highest rainfall recorded in
14076-709: The name Katrina to be retired by the World Meteorological Organization in April 2006. On January 4, 2023, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) updated the Katrina fatality data based on a report by Rappaport (2014) which reduced the number from an estimated 1,833 to 1,392. Hurricane Katrina originated from the merger of a tropical wave and the mid-level remnants of Tropical Depression Ten on August 19, 2005, near
14214-407: The negotiation of the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty , and the multibillion-dollar Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program and Project Sapphire that removed all nuclear weapons from Ukraine , Kazakhstan , and Belarus . Carter directed military planning during the 1994 crisis over North Korea 's nuclear weapons program. In addition, he was responsible for dealing with
14352-571: The north of Cuba , on August 28 it brought tropical-storm-force winds and rainfall of over 8 in (200 mm) to western regions of the island. Telephone and power lines were damaged and around 8,000 people were evacuated in the Pinar del Río Province . According to Cuban television reports the coastal town of Surgidero de Batabanó was 90% underwater. Hurricane Katrina first made landfall between Hallandale Beach and Aventura, Florida on August 25. The storm dropped heavy rainfall in portions of
14490-634: The northwestern portion of the state, though none of them caused significant damage. Throughout the Florida Panhandle, the storm resulted in an estimated $ 100 million in damage. There were two indirect fatalities from Katrina in Walton County as a result of a traffic accident. In the Florida Panhandle, 77,000 customers lost power. Overall, the hurricane killed 14 people and caused at least $ 623 million in damage. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana , with 125 mph (200 km/h) winds, as
14628-458: The other living former secretaries of defense, published a Washington Post op-ed piece opposing President Donald Trump 's summons for military involvement in overturning the 2020 election results, and urging for a peaceful transition of power. Carter was married to Stephanie DeLeeuw Carter. He had been previously married to Clayton Spencer , the eighth president of Bates College , with whom he had two children, Ava and Will. Carter died from
14766-427: The resumption of communication between their militaries. In 1976, Paul Doty and his team founded the journal International Security , the first academic journal to focus exclusively on international security. Since its founding, International Security has been one of the most cited scholarly journals in its field. International Security ranked 4th out of 96 international relations journals for Impact Factor in
14904-457: The state experienced power outages. Although Hurricane Katrina made landfall well to the west, Alabama and the Florida Panhandle were both affected by tropical-storm-force winds and a storm surge varying from 12 to 16 feet (3.7–4.9 m) around Mobile Bay , with higher waves on top. Sustained winds of 67 mph (108 km/h) were recorded in Mobile, Alabama , and the storm surge there
15042-479: The state government activated its Emergency Operations Center the next day, and local governments began issuing evacuation orders. By 6:00 p.m. CDT on August 28, 11 counties and cities issued evacuation orders, a number which increased to 41 counties and 61 cities by the following morning. Moreover, 57 emergency shelters were established on coastal communities, with 31 additional shelters available to open if needed. By Sunday, August 28, most infrastructure along
15180-446: The state line, and the eyewall passed over the cities of Bay St. Louis and Waveland as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 120 mph (190 km/h). Katrina's powerful right-front quadrant passed over the west and central Mississippi coast, causing a powerful 27-foot (8.2 m) storm surge, which penetrated 6 miles (10 km) inland in many areas and up to 12 miles (19 km) inland along bays and rivers; in some areas,
15318-476: The state was approximately 15 inches (380 mm). As a result of the rainfall and storm surge the level of Lake Pontchartrain rose and caused significant flooding along its northeastern shore, affecting communities from Slidell to Mandeville . Several bridges were destroyed, including the I-10 Twin Span Bridge connecting Slidell to New Orleans. Almost 900,000 people in Louisiana lost power as
15456-515: The state's coast. One apartment complex with approximately thirty residents seeking shelter inside collapsed. More than half of the 13 casinos in the state, which were floated on barges to comply with Mississippi land-based gambling laws, were washed hundreds of yards inland by waves. A number of streets and bridges were washed away. On U.S. Highway 90 along the Mississippi Gulf Coast, two major bridges were completely destroyed:
15594-484: The storm came ashore. Some estimates claimed that 80% of the 1.3 million residents of the greater New Orleans metropolitan area evacuated, leaving behind substantially fewer people than remained in the city during the Hurricane Ivan evacuation. On August 29, 2005, Katrina's storm surge caused 53 breaches to various flood protection structures in and around the greater New Orleans area, submerging 80% of
15732-614: The surge crossed Interstate 10 for several miles. Hurricane Katrina brought strong winds to Mississippi, which caused significant tree damage throughout the state. The highest unofficial reported wind gust recorded from Katrina was one of 135 mph (217 km/h) in Poplarville , in Pearl River County . The storm also brought heavy rains with 8–10 inches (200–250 mm) falling in southwestern Mississippi and rain in excess of 4 inches (100 mm) falling throughout
15870-430: The term in their public narratives and policy strategies; it has become a feature in national strategies across several U.S. administrations. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina raised serious policy questions about how effective disaster recovery management is conducted. “Clearly, there was a leadership role in New Orleans for the Kennedy School,” said Doug Ahlers , then a Belfer Center Senior Fellow who conceptualized and led
16008-617: The threats posed by Iran were as serious as those posed by the ISIL forces. He said he was not in favor of increasing the rate of prisoner releases from Guantanamo Bay . Carter was approved unanimously on February 1, 2015, by the Senate Armed Services Committee. He was confirmed by the Senate on February 12 by a vote of 93–5 and sworn in by Vice President Joe Biden on February 17. In May 2015, Carter warned
16146-546: The time, only to be surpassed by Hurricanes Rita and Wilma later in the season; it was also the strongest hurricane ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico at the time, before Rita broke the record. The hurricane subsequently weakened due to another eyewall replacement cycle, and Katrina made its second landfall at 1110 UTC on August 29, as a high-end Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph (201 km/h), near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana . At landfall, hurricane-force winds extended outward 120 miles (190 km) from
16284-689: The water or sun for days before being collected, hindered efforts by coroners to identify many of the dead. The first deaths reported from the city were reported shortly before midnight on August 28, as three nursing home patients died during an evacuation to Baton Rouge , most likely from dehydration. An estimated 215 bodies were found in nursing homes and hospitals in New Orleans, the largest number being at Memorial Medical Center where 45 corpses were recovered. Some 200 patients at Charity Hospital were not evacuated until Friday, September 2, having been without power or fresh water for five days. While there were also early reports of fatalities amid mayhem at
16422-585: The world include Chrystia Freeland , Deputy Prime Minister of Canada; Alvin Tan , Minister of State for Culture, Community and the Vienna Center for Disarmament and Non-Proliferation; National Energy Authority; and Halla Logadóttir , Director-General of Iceland’s National Energy Authority. In the global academic arena, Center alumni sit on faculties and lead departments in prestigious and influential academic institutions and security-focused programs around
16560-514: The world. Following the coup attempt against Soviet leader and reformer Mikhail Gorbachev in August 1991, Belfer Center security experts shaped signature U.S. legislation to secure nuclear weapons following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Belfer Center experts produced the first comprehensive analysis of what could happen to the Soviet Union’s nuclear weapons and how to control the fate of that arsenal. Soviet Nuclear Fission: Control of
16698-406: Was Deputy Secretary of Defense , serving as the DOD's chief operating officer, overseeing the department's annual budget and its three million civilian and military personnel, steering strategy and budget through sequester, and directing the reform of DOD's national security export controls. He was confirmed by Senate voice vote for both positions. In an April 4, 2013, speech, he affirmed that
16836-513: Was Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics , with responsibility for DOD's procurement reform and innovation agenda and completion of procurements such as the KC-46 tanker. He also led the development and production of thousands of mine-resistant ambush protected ( MRAP ) vehicles, and other acquisitions. He instituted "Better Buying Power," seeking smarter and leaner purchasing. From October 2011 to December 2013, Carter
16974-470: Was a powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that caused 1,392 fatalities and damages estimated at $ 125 billion in late August 2005, particularly in the city of New Orleans and its surrounding area. It is tied with Hurricane Harvey as being the costliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin . Katrina was the twelfth tropical cyclone, the fifth hurricane, and the third major hurricane of
17112-467: Was a senior partner at Global Technology Partners, focused on advising investment firms in technology and defense. He was a consultant to Goldman Sachs and Mitretek Systems on international affairs and technology matters, and spoke frequently to business and policy audiences. Carter served as an independent director on the General Electric board of directors from 2020 until his death. He
17250-823: Was also a member of the boards of directors of the Mitre Corporation and Mitretek Systems and the advisory boards of MIT Lincoln Laboratory and Draper Laboratory . Carter was also a member of the Aspen Strategy Group , the Council on Foreign Relations , the American Physical Society , the International Institute for Strategic Studies , and the National Committee on U.S.-China Relations . Carter
17388-734: Was also co-director of the Preventive Defense Project, which designs and promotes security policies aimed at preventing the emergence of major new threats to the United States. Carter had been a longtime member of the Defense Science Board and the Defense Policy Board , the principal advisory bodies to the Secretary of Defense. During the Bush administration, he was also a member of Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice 's International Security Advisory Board; co-chair of
17526-542: Was approximately 12 feet (3.7 m). The surge caused significant flooding several miles inland along Mobile Bay. Four tornadoes were also reported in Alabama. Ships, oil rigs, boats and fishing piers were washed ashore along Mobile Bay: the cargo ship M/V Caribbean Clipper and many fishing boats were grounded at Bayou La Batre . An oil rig under construction along the Mobile River broke its moorings and floated 1.5 miles (2.4 km) northwards before striking
17664-520: Was designed and built by the Orleans Levee Board . The search for the missing was undertaken by the St. Bernard Fire Department because of the assets of the United States Coast Guard being diverted to New Orleans. In the months after the storm, many of the missing were tracked down by searching flooded homes, tracking credit card records, and visiting homes of family and relatives. According to
17802-454: Was downgraded to a tropical depression near Clarksville, Tennessee ; its remnants were absorbed by a cold front in the eastern Great Lakes region on August 31. The resulting extratropical storm moved rapidly to the northeast and affected eastern Canada. The United States Coast Guard began pre-positioning resources in a ring around the expected impact zone and activated more than 400 reservists. On August 27, it moved its personnel out of
17940-544: Was due to a vehicle accident, one occurred during debris cleanup, and one was associated with a lack of electricity. Significant impacts were also reported in the Florida Panhandle . Although Katrina moved ashore in Louisiana and Mississippi, its outer periphery produced a 5.37 ft (1.64 m) storm surge in Pensacola . High waves caused beach erosion and closed nearby roadways. There were five tornadoes in
18078-508: Was due to flooding caused by engineering flaws in the flood protection system, particularly the levees around the city of New Orleans. 80% of the city, as well as large areas in neighboring parishes , were flooded for weeks. The flooding destroyed most of New Orleans's transportation and communication facilities, leaving tens of thousands of people who did or could not evacuate the city before landfall with little access to food, shelter, and other necessities. The disaster in New Orleans prompted
18216-772: Was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was named as a Fellow in the American Physical Society (Forum on Physics & Society) in 2015. Carter served as an honorary director on the board of directors at the Atlantic Council . In April 2021, Carter joined Tanium Board of Directors. From 2021, he had been a member of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). In 2021, Carter joined Shield Capital's board of Strategic Advisors. Carter's views on Iran had been perceived as hawkish. In 2006, he authored
18354-629: Was nominated by President Barack Obama to be the 25th United States secretary of defense on December 5, 2014. In his nomination hearing before the Senate Armed Services Committee , he said he was "very much inclined" to increase U.S. military aid to Ukraine. Speaking on the Middle East, he said the U.S. must militarily ensure a "lasting defeat" of Islamic State (ISIL) forces in Iraq and Syria . He also opined that
18492-433: Was opened. All three coastal counties of the state were severely affected by the storm. Katrina's surge was the most extensive, as well as the highest, in the documented history of the United States; large portions of Hancock , Harrison , and Jackson counties were inundated by the storm surge, in all three cases affecting most of the populated areas. Surge covered almost the entire lower half of Hancock County, destroying
18630-672: Was published in 2021 and 2022 as a four-part discussion paper series titled “The Great Rivalry: China vs. the U.S. in the 21st Century,” delving into the technology, military, economic, and diplomatic arenas. The ideas presented in the Great Rivalry publications have had extensive influence, including informing President Joe Biden ’s China policy and the U.S. negotiating agenda ahead of the November 2023 APEC Summit in San Francisco, in which Presidents Biden and Xi announced
18768-586: Was responsible for strategic affairs, including dealing with the threat of weapons of mass destruction elsewhere in the world, nuclear weapons policy (including overseeing the U.S. nuclear arsenal and missile defenses), the 1994 Nuclear Posture Review , the Agreed Framework signed in 1994 which froze North Korea 's plutonium -producing nuclear reactor program, the 1995 extension of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty ,
18906-545: Was revealed that Carter had used a personal email account while conducting official business as Secretary of Defense. In January 2016, at Carter's direction, the Department of Defense opened all military roles to women, overriding a request by the Marine Corps to continue to exempt women from certain positions. In June 2016, Carter announced that transgender individuals would be allowed to join and openly serve in
19044-540: Was then a research fellow at the MIT Center for International Studies from 1982 to 1984, during which time he wrote a public report assessing that the Reagan-proposed " Star Wars " initiative could not protect the U.S. from a Soviet nuclear attack. Carter taught at Harvard University , as an assistant professor from 1984 to 1986, associate professor from 1986 to 1988, professor and associate director of
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