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129-579: The Belvedere palaces were the summer residence of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736). The ensemble was built in the early eighteenth century by the famous Baroque architect, Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt , and comprises the Upper and Lower Belvedere, with the Orangery and Palace Stables, as well as extensive gardens. The Belvedere houses what was the first public museum in Austria, today containing one of

258-613: A small-scale revolt had broken out in May and was fast gaining momentum. With the monarchy at the point of complete financial breakdown Leopold I was at last persuaded to change the government. At the end of June 1703 Gundaker Starhemberg replaced Gotthard Salaburg as President of the Treasury, and Prince Eugene succeeded Henry Mansfeld as the new President of the Imperial War Council ( Hofkriegsratspräsident ). As head of

387-673: A 'lucky hit'. The resulting Battle of Luzzara on 15 August proved inconclusive. Although Eugene's forces inflicted double the number of casualties on the French the battle settled little except to deter Vendôme trying an all-out assault on Imperial forces that year, enabling Eugene to hold on south of the Alps. With his army routing away, and personally grieving for his long-standing friend Prince Commercy who had died at Luzzara, Eugene returned to Vienna in January 1703. Eugene's European reputation

516-540: A book translated into English from the original German, celebrating 300 years of the museum and its collection in 2023. Following extensive adaptation and remodelling, the highlights of the collections of medieval and Baroque art (previously in the Lower Belvedere) have been placed on display at the Upper Belvedere since spring 2008. For the first time, the entire scope of the permanent collection, from

645-762: A brief terror-raid into Ottoman Bosnia , culminating in the sack of Sarajevo , Eugene returned to Vienna in November to a triumphal reception. His victory at Zenta had turned him into a European hero, and with victory came reward. Land in Hungary, given him by the Emperor, yielded a good income, enabling the Prince to cultivate his newly acquired tastes in art and architecture (see below); but for all his new-found wealth and property, he was, nevertheless, without personal ties or family commitments. Of his four brothers, only one

774-538: A cavalry brigade, Eugene made an important contribution to the victory at the Battle of Mohács on 12 August. Such was the scale of their defeat that the Ottoman army mutinied—a revolt which spread to Constantinople . The Grand Vizier, Sarı Süleyman Pasha , was executed and Sultan Mehmed IV , deposed. Once again, Eugene's courage earned him recognition from his superiors, who granted him the honour of personally conveying

903-655: A deliverance for the French commander who was "now beginning to feel the unlikelihood of success (in Italy) ... for Prince Eugene, with the reinforcements that had joined him after the Battle of Calcinato, had entirely changed the outlook in that theatre of the war." The Duke of Orléans , under the direction of Marsin, replaced Vendôme, but indecision and disorder in the French camp led to their undoing. After uniting his forces with Victor Amadeus at Villastellone in early September, Eugene attacked, overwhelmed, and decisively defeated

1032-509: A favourable position from which he could at last move west towards Piedmont and relieve Savoy's capital. Events elsewhere now had major consequences for the war in Italy. With Villeroi's crushing defeat by Marlborough at the Battle of Ramillies on 23 May, Louis XIV recalled Vendôme north to take command of French forces in Flanders. It was a transfer that Saint-Simon considered something of

1161-753: A field marshal and commander in chief of the German Air Force after Göring had fallen out of Hitler's favour, making Greim the last German field marshal in history. Financially, the rank of Generalfeldmarschall in Nazi Germany was very rewarding as, apart from a yearly salary, Hitler introduced tax free fringe benefits for generals in the range of 2,000 to 4,000  ℛ︁ℳ︁ (€8897–17793 in 2021) per month in 1940. He also bestowed generous presents on his highest officers, with Leeb receiving 250,000 ℛ︁ℳ︁ (€1,112,067 in 2021) for his 65th birthday from Hitler. Promotion to

1290-521: A lesser extent, their) ambitions. The Mancinis were raised at the Palais-Royal along with the young Louis XIV, with whom Olympia formed an intimate relationship. Yet to her great disappointment, her chance to become queen passed by, and in 1657 she married Eugene Maurice , Count of Soissons , Count of Dreux and Prince of Savoy . Together they had had five sons (Eugene being the youngest) and three daughters, but neither parent spent much time with

1419-541: A military career in France, Eugene decided to seek service abroad. One of Eugene's brothers, Louis Julius , had entered Imperial service the previous year, but he had been immediately killed fighting the Ottoman Empire in 1683. When news of his death reached Paris, Eugene decided to travel to Austria in the hope of taking over his brother's command. It was not an unnatural decision: his first cousin, Louis of Baden ,

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1548-590: A remarkable success. The French were driven out of almost all the Spanish Netherlands . "He who has not seen this", wrote Eugene, "has seen nothing." The recent defeats, together with the severe winter of 1708–09, had caused extreme famine and privation in France. Louis XIV was close to accepting Allied terms, but the conditions demanded by the leading Allied negotiators, Anthonie Heinsius , Charles Townshend , Marlborough, and Eugene—principally that Louis XIV should use his own troops to force Philip V off

1677-630: A single naval officer, Henning von Holtzendorff , was designated Grand Admiral. Not even such well-known German commanders as Erich Ludendorff , Erich von Falkenhayn , or Reinhard Scheer received marshal's batons or Grand Admiral rank. Before the Second World War , Adolf Hitler reintroduced the rank into the Wehrmacht with the promotion of the Reich Minister of War, Generaloberst Werner von Blomberg (20 April 1936), and

1806-401: A state of 'indescribable misery'. Confident and self-assured, the Prince of Savoy (ably assisted by Commercy and Guido Starhemberg ) set about restoring order and discipline. Leopold I had warned Eugene that "he should act with extreme caution, forgo all risks and avoid engaging the enemy unless he has overwhelming strength and is practically certain of being completely victorious", but when

1935-734: A vast collection of art and literature and corresponded with contemporary artists, scientists, and philosophers. His architectural legacy includes Baroque palaces like the Belvedere in Vienna. He died on 21 April 1736, aged 72. Prince Eugene was born at the Hôtel de Soissons in Paris on 18 October 1663. His mother, Olympia Mancini , was one of Cardinal Mazarin 's nieces whom the Cardinal had brought to Paris from Rome in 1647 to further his (and, to

2064-554: Is clear that Baden was impressed with Eugene's qualities—"This young man will, with time, occupy the place of those whom the world regards as great leaders of armies." In June 1686, the Duke of Lorraine besieged Buda ( Budapest ), the centre of Ottoman Hungary and the old royal capital. After resisting for 78 days, the city fell on 2 September, and Turkish resistance collapsed throughout the region as far away as Transylvania and Serbia. Further success followed in 1687, where, commanding

2193-641: Is known after her early salacious life in Paris, but in due course, she lived for a time in a convent in Savoy before her death in 1726. The Battle of Zenta proved to be the decisive victory in the long war against the Turks. With Leopold I's interests now focused on Spain and the imminent death of Charles II, the Emperor terminated the conflict with the Sultan; he signed the Treaty of Karlowitz on 26 January 1699. With

2322-516: The 21er Haus as well as the Gustinus Ambrosi Museum. The Belvedere's art collection presents an almost complete overview of the development of art in Austria and, thus, an insight into the country's history. The world's largest collection of Gustav Klimt 's paintings lies at the heart of the presentation of Art around 1900 , on show at the Upper Belvedere. Its highlights are Klimt's paintings, The Kiss (1908) and Judith and

2451-619: The Alliance against France in 1690. Promoted to general of cavalry, he arrived in Turin with his friend the Prince of Commercy ; but it proved an inauspicious start. Against Eugene's advice, Amadeus insisted on engaging the French at Staffarda and suffered a serious defeat—only Eugene's handling of the Savoyard cavalry in retreat saved his cousin from disaster. Eugene remained unimpressed with

2580-564: The Alps with some 30,000 men in May/June 1701. After a series of brilliant manoeuvres the Imperial commander defeated Catinat at the Battle of Carpi on 9 July. "I have warned you that you are dealing with an enterprising young prince", wrote Louis XIV to his commander, "he does not tie himself down to the rules of war." On 1 September Eugene defeated Catinat's successor, Marshal Villeroi , at

2709-658: The Austrian Empire as Kaiserlicher Feldmarschall ("imperial field marshal") and in Austria-Hungary as Kaiserlicher und königlicher Feldmarschall - Császári és királyi tábornagy ("imperial and royal field marshal"). Both were based on prior usage during the Holy Roman Empire . The Emperor - King held the rank ex officio , other officers were promoted as required. Between 1914 and 1918, ten men attained this rank, of whom four were members of

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2838-514: The Banat fortress of Temeswar in mid-October 1716 (thus ending 164 years of Turkish rule), before turning his attention to the next campaign and to what he considered the main goal of the war, Belgrade. Situated at the confluence of the Rivers Danube and Sava , Belgrade held a garrison of 30,000 men under Serasker Mustapha Pasha. Imperial troops besieged the place in mid-June 1717, and by

2967-649: The Battle of Blenheim . Eugene commanded the right wing of the Allied army, holding the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin 's superior forces, while Marlborough broke through the Marshal Tallard 's center, inflicting over 30,000 casualties. The battle proved decisive: Vienna was saved and Bavaria was knocked out of the war. Both Allied commanders were full of praise for each other's performance. Eugene's holding operation, and his pressure for action leading up to

3096-474: The Battle of Chiari , in a clash as destructive as any in the Italian theatre. But as so often throughout his career the Prince faced war on two fronts—the enemy in the field and the government in Vienna. Starved of supplies, money, and men, Eugene was forced into unconventional means against the vastly superior enemy. During a daring raid on Cremona on the night of 31 January/1 February 1702 Eugene captured

3225-616: The Battle of Stalingrad , to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall via field radio on 30 January 1943, a day before his army's inevitable surrender, in order to encourage him to continue to fight until death or commit suicide. In the promotion, Hitler noted that no German or, before that, Prussian field marshal had ever been captured alive. Generalfeldmarschall Paulus surrendered the following day anyway, claiming, Ich habe nicht die Absicht, mich für diesen bayerischen Gefreiten zu erschießen. ("I have no intention of shooting myself for this Bavarian corporal.") A disappointed Hitler commented, "That's

3354-771: The Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR) (German Democratic Republic, i.e. East Germany ) created the rank of Marshal of the German Democratic Republic on 25 March 1982. A general could be appointed to this rank by the State Council ( Staatsrat ; the head-of-state council of the GDR) during wartime or for exceptional military achievement; no one ever held the rank, however. The ranks of Generalfeldmarschall , Generaloberst , Großadmiral and Generaladmiral no longer exist in

3483-642: The Duke of Orléans , Eugene lived a life of "debauchery" and belonged to a small, effeminate set that included the famous cross-dresser Abbé François-Timoléon de Choisy . In February 1683, to the surprise of his family, the 19-year-old Eugene declared his intention of joining the army. Eugene applied directly to Louis XIV for command of a company in French service, but the King who was said to dislike Eugene's appearance and who had shown no compassion for Olympia's children since her disgrace—refused him out of hand. "The request

3612-521: The Franco-Prussian War —became the first Prussian princes appointed to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall . The exalted nature of the rank was underscored during World War I , when only five German officers (excluding honorary promotions to members of royal families and foreign officers) were designated Generalfeldmarschall : Paul von Hindenburg , August von Mackensen , Karl von Bülow , Hermann von Eichhorn , and Remus von Woyrsch . Only

3741-561: The Führer ”. In 1942, three other men were promoted— Wüstenfuchs ('Desert Fox') Erwin Rommel (22 June) for the siege of Tobruk , Erich von Manstein (30 June) for the Siege of Sevastopol , and Georg von Küchler (30 June) for his success as Oberbefehlshaber der Heeresgruppe Nord (commander-in-chief of Army Group North). Hitler promoted Friedrich Paulus , commander of the 6th Army at

3870-674: The House of Bourbon —something unacceptable to England , the Dutch Republic , and Leopold I, who had himself a claim to the Spanish throne. From the beginning, the Emperor had refused to accept the will of Charles II, and he did not wait for England and the Dutch Republic to begin hostilities. Before a new Grand Alliance could be concluded Leopold I prepared to send an expedition to seize the Spanish lands in Italy. Eugene crossed

3999-640: The Ottoman threat. For the next two years, Eugene continued to perform with distinction on campaign and establish himself as a dedicated, professional soldier; by the end of 1685, still only 22 years old, he was made a Major-General. Little is known of Eugene's life during these early campaigns. Contemporary observers make only passing comments of his actions, and his own surviving correspondence, largely to his cousin Victor Amadeus, are typically reticent about his own feelings and experiences. Nevertheless, it

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4128-784: The State of Defence , that supreme command authority is transferred to the Federal Chancellor . The Inspector General of the Bundeswehr is the military chief of defence and heads the Armed Forces Command Staff ( German : Führungsstab der Streitkräfte ). The rank of Field Marshal was first used in the northern German State of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire in 1631. It was then used nine further times in that century and seven times in

4257-543: The Sublime Porte rejected an offer of mediation in April 1716, Charles VI despatched Eugene to Hungary to lead his relatively small but professional army. Of all Eugene's wars this was the one in which he exercised most direct control; it was also a war which, for the most part, Austria fought and won on her own. Eugene left Vienna in early June 1716 with a field army of between 80,000 and 90,000 men. By early August 1716

4386-423: The Treaty of Rastatt signed on 7 March 1714 and the Treaty of Baden signed on 7 September 1714. Despite the failed campaign in 1713 the Prince was able to declare that, "in spite of the military superiority of our enemies and the defection of our Allies, the conditions of peace will be more advantageous and more glorious than those we would have obtained at Utrecht." Eugene's main reason for desiring peace in

4515-510: The Utrecht conference along with the other Allies. Reluctantly, Eugene prepared for another campaign, but lacking troops, finance, and supplies his prospects in 1713 were poor. Villars, with superior numbers, was able to keep Eugene guessing as to his true intent. Through successful feints and stratagems Landau fell to the French commander in August, followed in November by Freiburg . Eugene

4644-464: The Allied commanders had co-operated remarkably well. "Prince Eugene and I", wrote the Duke, "shall never differ about our share of the laurels." Marlborough now favoured a bold advance along the coast to bypass the major French fortresses, followed by a march on Paris. But fearful of unprotected supply-lines, the Dutch and Eugene favoured a more cautious approach. Marlborough acquiesced and resolved upon

4773-613: The Anglo-Dutch army made a forced march to surprise the French, reaching the River Scheldt just as the enemy was crossing to the north. The ensuing battle on 11 July—more a contact action rather than a set-piece engagement—ended in a resounding success for the Allies, aided by the dissension of the two French commanders. While Marlborough remained in overall command, Eugene had led the crucial right flank and centre. Once again

4902-605: The Austrian Habsburg dynasty during the 17th and 18th centuries. Renowned as one of the greatest military commanders of his era, Prince Eugene also rose to the highest offices of state at the Imperial court in Vienna spending six decades in the service of three emperors. Born in Paris , to the son of a French count and a niece of Cardinal Mazarin , Eugene was raised at the court of King Louis XIV . Initially destined for

5031-583: The Austrian monarchy faced severe peril on several fronts in 1703: by June the Duke of Villars had reinforced the Elector of Bavaria on the Danube thus posing a direct threat to Vienna, while Vendôme remained at the head of a large army in northern Italy opposing Guido Starhemberg's weak Imperial force. Of equal alarm was Francis II Rákóczi 's revolt which, by the end of the year, had reached as far as Moravia and Lower Austria . Dissension between Villars and

5160-521: The Austrians, under Louis of Baden, regained the advantage by heavily defeating the Turks at the Battle of Slankamen on the Danube, securing Habsburg possession of Hungary and Transylvania. When Baden was transferred west to fight the French in 1692, his successors, first Caprara, then from 1696, Augustus the Strong , the Elector of Saxony, proved incapable of delivering the final blow. On the advice of

5289-590: The Aviation Minister, Hermann Göring (4 February 1938), to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall . In the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during the Second World War, the rank of Generalfeldmarschall remained the highest military rank until July 1940 , when Hermann Göring was promoted to the newly created higher rank of Reichsmarschall . The equivalent of a Generalfeldmarschall in the navy

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5418-704: The Baroque Museum in the Lower Belvedere (opened in 1923), the Gallery of 19th Century Art at the Upper Belvedere (from 1924), and the Modern Gallery at the Orangery (from 1929). The Belvedere's collection of medieval art was first exhibited at the Orangery next to the Lower Belvedere in 1953. In March of 1950, a major fire broke out in the “Gold Cabinet” in the north-eastern corner pavilion of

5547-438: The Elector of Bavaria had prevented an assault on Vienna in 1703, but in the Courts of Versailles and Madrid , ministers confidently anticipated the city's fall. The Imperial ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw , had pressed for Anglo-Dutch assistance on the Danube as early as February 1703, but the crisis in southern Europe seemed remote from the Court of St. James's where colonial and commercial considerations were more to

5676-578: The Emperor in mid-June 1709. "There can be no doubt that the next battle will be the biggest and bloodiest that has yet been fought." After the fall of Tournai on 3 September (itself a major undertaking), the Allied generals turned their attention towards Mons . Marshal Villars, recently joined by Boufflers, moved his army south-west of the town and began to fortify his position. Marlborough and Eugene favoured an engagement before Villars could render his position impregnable; but they also agreed to wait for reinforcements from Tournai which did not arrive until

5805-515: The French commander-in-chief. Yet the coup was less successful than hoped: Cremona remained in French hands, and the Duke of Vendôme , whose talents far exceeded Villeroi's, became the theatre's new commander. Villeroi's capture caused a sensation in Europe and had a galvanizing effect on English public opinion. "The surprise at Cremona", wrote the diarist John Evelyn , "... was the great discourse of this week"; but appeals for succour from Vienna remained unheeded, forcing Eugene to seek battle and gain

5934-468: The French forces besieging Turin on 7 September. Eugene's success broke the French hold on northern Italy, and the whole Po valley fell under Allied control. Eugene had gained a victory as signal as his colleague had at Ramillies—"It is impossible for me to express the joy it has given me;" wrote Marlborough, "for I not only esteem but I really love the prince. This glorious action must bring France so low, that if our friends could but be persuaded to carry on

6063-453: The Head of Holofernes (1901), and masterpieces by Egon Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka . Key works of French Impressionism and the greatest collection of Viennese Biedermeier art are further attractions at the museum. The two Belvedere palaces housed an array of artworks even when they were the summer residence of the art patron and collector, Prince Eugene. After the Prince's death, the Habsburgs acquired some of his collections together with

6192-401: The Imperial army, only to be killed in action against the French in 1702. Of Eugene's sisters, the youngest had died in childhood. The other two, Marie Jeanne-Baptiste and Louise Philiberte, led dissolute lives. Expelled from France, Marie joined her mother in Brussels, before eloping with a renegade priest to Geneva , living with him unhappily until her premature death in 1705. Of Louise, little

6321-406: The Imperial cause, he promoted him to Field-Marshal in 1693. When Carafa's replacement, Count Caprara , was himself transferred in 1694, it seemed that Eugene's chance for command and decisive action had finally arrived. But Amadeus, doubtful of victory and now more fearful of Habsburg influence in Italy than he was of French, had begun secret dealings with Louis XIV aimed at extricating himself from

6450-436: The Imperial commander learnt of Sultan Mustafa II 's march on Transylvania, Eugene abandoned all ideas of a defensive campaign and moved to intercept the Turks as they crossed the River Tisza at Zenta on 11 September 1697. It was late in the day before the Imperial army struck. The Ottoman cavalry had already crossed the river so Eugene decided to attack immediately, arranging his men in a half-moon formation. The vigour of

6579-417: The Middle Ages to the mid-twentieth century, is possible to see under one roof. The adapted rooms in the Lower Belvedere and Orangery now provide space for temporary exhibitions. Prince Eugene of Savoy Prince Eugene Francis of Savoy-Carignano (18 October 1663 – 21 April 1736), better known as Prince Eugene , was a distinguished field marshal in the Army of the Holy Roman Empire and of

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6708-456: The Morea from the Venetians. The war had dispelled the immediate Turkish threat to Hungary and was a triumph for Austria and for Eugene personally. Generalfeldmarschall Generalfeldmarschall ( German: [ɡenəʁaːlˈfɛltmaʁʃal] ; from Old High German marahscalc , "marshal, stable master, groom"; English: general field marshal , field marshal general , or field marshal ; often abbreviated to Feldmarschall )

6837-422: The Nine Years' War with an enhanced reputation. With the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick in September/October 1697, the desultory war in the west was finally brought to an inconclusive end, and Leopold I could once again devote all his martial energies into defeating the Ottoman Turks in the east. The distractions of the war against Louis XIV had enabled the Turks to recapture Belgrade in 1690 . In August 1691,

6966-433: The Ottoman Turks, some 200,000 men under the sultan's son-in-law, the Grand Vizier Damat Ali Pasha , were marching from Belgrade towards Eugene's position on the north bank of the Danube west of the fortress of Petrovaradin . The Grand Vizier had intended to seize the fortress; but Eugene gave him no chance to do so. After resisting calls for caution and forgoing a council of war, the Prince decided to attack immediately on

7095-572: The Ottoman threat for nearly 20 years. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), he served Emperor Leopold I, achieving victories in Italy and forming a crucial partnership with the Duke of Marlborough , securing wins at Blenheim (1704) , Oudenaarde (1708) , and Malplaquet (1709) . His success continued in Italy, notably at Turin (1706) . Renewed Austro-Turkish conflicts saw Eugene triumph at Petrovaradin (1716) and Belgrade (1717) , solidifying his legacy as one of Europe's greatest military commanders and securing peace in 1718. Throughout

7224-399: The Ottoman threat to Emperor Leopold I's capital, Vienna , was very evident. The Grand Vizier , Kara Mustafa Pasha —encouraged by Imre Thököly 's Magyar rebellion—had invaded Hungary with between 100,000 and 200,000 men; within two months approximately 90,000 were beneath Vienna's walls. With the 'Turks at the gates', the Emperor fled for the safe refuge of Passau up the Danube . It

7353-401: The President of the Imperial War Council , Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg , thirty-four-year old Eugene was offered supreme command of Imperial forces in April 1697. This was Eugene's first truly independent command—no longer need he suffer under the excessively cautious generalship of Caprara and Carafa, or be thwarted by the deviations of Victor Amadeus. But on joining his army, he found it in

7482-439: The Prince suffered a severe wound to his knee by a musket ball during the Siege of Belgrade , and did not return to active service until January 1689. Just as Belgrade was falling to Imperial forces under Max Emmanuel in the east, French troops in the west were crossing the Rhine into the Holy Roman Empire . Louis XIV had hoped that a show of force would lead to a quick resolution to his dynastic and territorial disputes with

7611-407: The Salzburg Rupertinum and the Museum der Moderne on the Mönchsberg, was director of the Belvedere between 2007 and 2016. She helped to position the Belvedere as a museum of Austrian art in an international context. Stella Rollig who served as Austrian Federal Curator for the Fine Arts from 1994 to 1996, is currently the general director of the Belvedere since 2017. She and Christian Humer edited

7740-400: The Spanish throne—proved unacceptable to the French. Neither Eugene nor Marlborough had objected to the Allied demands at the time, but neither wanted the war with France to continue, and would have preferred further talks to deal with the Spanish issue. But the French King offered no further proposals. Lamenting the collapse of the negotiations, and aware of the vagaries of war, Eugene wrote to

7869-535: The Upper Belvedere was reopened to the public, showing works by Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Oskar Kokoschka, and other major Austrian artists. In the years after the Second World War , there were many acquisitions and the museum was expanded and modernized. The Österreichische Galerie Belvedere is today one of the Austrian Federal Museums (Bundesmuseen) and since 2000 has been a vollrechtsfähige "wissenschaftliche Anstalt" (a legally independent public research/scientific institution). Agnes Husslein , formerly director of

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7998-435: The Upper Belvedere, which had already been damaged by bombing during World War II Some of the rooms and artworks destroyed in that fire were depicted by artists who had painted and/or photographed the interior and its decor earlier in the 20th century, such as the painter Josef Pögl (1867-1956) whose work is currently displayed as part of the Imperial Treasury Collection. In 1955, after years of rebuilding and renovation,

8127-415: The age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church since he was the youngest of his family. Eugene's appearance was not impressive—"He was never good-looking ..." wrote the Duchess of Orléans , "It is true that his eyes are not ugly, but his nose ruins his face; he has two large teeth which are visible at all times" According to the duchess, who was married to Louis XIV's bisexual brother,

8256-419: The air force to the rank of field marshal on 19 July 1940 : Walther von Brauchitsch , Wilhelm Keitel , Gerd von Rundstedt , Fedor von Bock , Wilhelm von Leeb , Wilhelm List , Günther von Kluge , Erwin von Witzleben and Walter von Reichenau (of the Heer ); and Albert Kesselring , Erhard Milch and Hugo Sperrle (of the Luftwaffe ). The holders of this rank had the right to a “direct presentation to

8385-604: The arts of black magic and astrology . It proved a fatal relationship. She became embroiled in the "Affaire des poisons" ; suspicions abounded of her involvement in her husband's premature death in 1673, and even implicated her in a plot to kill the King himself. Whatever the truth, Olympia, rather than face trial, subsequently fled France for Brussels in January 1680, leaving Eugene in the care of his paternal grandmother, Marie de Bourbon, Countess of Soissons , and of his paternal aunt, Louise Christine of Savoy, Hereditary Princess of Baden , mother of Prince Louis of Baden . From

8514-512: The assault wrought terror and confusion among the Turks, and by nightfall, the battle was won. For the loss of some 2,000 dead and wounded, Eugene had inflicted an overwhelming defeat upon the enemy with approximately 25,000 Turks killed—including the Grand Vizier, Elmas Mehmed Pasha , the pashas of Adana, Anatolia, and Bosnia, plus more than thirty aghas of the Janissaries , sipahis , and silihdars, as well as seven horsetails (symbols of high authority), 100 pieces of heavy artillery, 423 banners, and

8643-423: The battle, proved crucial for the Allied success. In Europe Blenheim is regarded as much a victory for Eugene as it is for Marlborough, a sentiment echoed by Sir Winston Churchill (Marlborough's descendant and biographer), who pays tribute to "the glory of Prince Eugene, whose fire and spirit had exhorted the wonderful exertions of his troops." France now faced the real danger of invasion, but Leopold I in Vienna

8772-407: The beginning of 1708 Eugene successfully evaded calls for him to take charge in Spain (in the end Guido Starhemberg was sent), thus enabling him to take command of the Imperial army on the Moselle and once again unite with Marlborough in the Spanish Netherlands. Eugene (without his army) arrived at the Allied camp at Assche , west of Brussels, in early July, providing a welcome boost to morale after

8901-446: The children: the father, a French general officer, spent much of his time away campaigning, while Olympia's passion for court intrigue meant the children received little attention from her. The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers; but her scheming eventually led to her downfall. After falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to Catherine Deshayes (known as La Voisin ), and to

9030-434: The court, exiled from Paris, and suspected, I believe, of sorcery, by people who were not, themselves, very great wizards. They will tell, how I was born in France then left it, my heart swelling with enmity against Louis XIV who refused me a cavalry company, because, said he, I was of too delicate a constitution; that he refused me an abbey, because (based on I don't know what ill talks about me or what invented anecdotes from

9159-420: The death of Joseph I on 17 April 1711 his brother, Charles , the pretender to the Spanish throne, became emperor. In England the new Tory government (the 'peace party' who had deposed the Whigs in October 1710) declared their unwillingness to see Charles VI become Emperor as well as King of Spain, and had already begun secret negotiations with the French. In January 1712 Eugene arrived in England hoping to divert

9288-528: The death of the infirm and childless Charles II of Spain on 1 November 1700, the succession of the Spanish throne and subsequent control over her empire once again embroiled Europe in war—the War of the Spanish Succession . On his deathbed Charles II had bequeathed the entire Spanish inheritance to Louis XIV's grandson, Philip, Duke of Anjou . This threatened to unite the Spanish and French kingdoms under

9417-477: The early defection of Bruges and Ghent to the French. " ... our affairs improved through God's support and Eugene's aid", wrote the Prussian General Natzmer , "whose timely arrival raised the spirits of the army again and consoled us." Heartened by the Prince's confidence the Allied commanders devised a bold plan to engage the French army under Vendôme and the Duke of Burgundy . On 10 July

9546-464: The end of July large parts of the city had been destroyed by artillery fire. By the first days of August, however, a huge Turkish field army (150,000–200,000 strong), under the new Grand Vizier Hacı Halil Pasha had arrived on the plateau east of the city to relieve the garrison. News spread through Europe of Eugene's imminent destruction; but he had no intention of lifting the siege. With his men suffering from dysentery , and continuous bombardment from

9675-411: The first time at the small village of Mundelsheim on 10 June, and immediately formed a close rapport—the two men becoming, in the words of Thomas Lediard , 'Twin constellations in glory'. This professional and personal bond ensured mutual support on the battlefield, enabling many successes during the Spanish Succession war. The first of these victories, and the most celebrated, came on 13 August 1704 at

9804-438: The following night, thus giving the French further opportunity to prepare their defences. Notwithstanding the difficulties of the attack, the Allied generals did not shrink from their original determination. The subsequent Battle of Malplaquet , fought on 11 September 1709, was the bloodiest engagement of the war. On the left flank, the Prince of Orange led his Dutch infantry in desperate charges only to have it cut to pieces; on

9933-614: The fore of men's minds. Only a handful of statesmen in England or the Dutch Republic realized the true implications of Austria's peril; foremost among these was the English Captain-General, the Duke of Marlborough . By early 1704 Marlborough had resolved to march south and rescue the situation in southern Germany and on the Danube, personally requesting the presence of Eugene on campaign so as to have "a supporter of his zeal and experience". The Allied commanders met for

10062-405: The gallery of Versailles) that I was more shaped for pleasure than for piety. There is not a Huguenot expelled by the revocation of the edict of Nantes who hated Louis XIV more than I did. Therefore when Louvois heard of my departure saying: "So much the better; he will never return into this country again" I swore never to enter it but with arms in my hands. I HAVE KEPT MY WORD. By May 1683,

10191-612: The government away from its peace policy, but despite the social success the visit was a political failure: Queen Anne and her ministers remained determined to end the war regardless of the Allies. Eugene had also arrived too late to save Marlborough who, seen by the Tories as the main obstacle to peace, had already been dismissed on charges of embezzlement. Elsewhere the Austrians had made some progress—the Hungarian revolt had finally came to end. Although Eugene would have preferred to crush

10320-526: The greatest collections of Austrian art dating from the Middle Ages to the present day,complemented by the works of international artists. At the Upper Belvedere, visitors not only encounter artworks drawn from over five hundred years of art history but can also experience the magnificent staterooms. In addition to the Lower and Upper Belvedere, the museum has further sites at Prince Eugene's town palace and

10449-656: The last field marshal I make in this war!" Nevertheless, he appointed seven more, three on the very day following Paulus' surrender: Ernst Busch , Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist and Maximilian von Weichs (all members of the Heer ). Later that same month, Hitler promoted Luftwaffe General Wolfram von Richthofen to the rank for his service in the Crimean campaign , and the later part of the Battle of Stalingrad . From 1944 to 1945, three more men would reach this rank. In early 1944, Walter Model , one of Hitler's most loyal generals,

10578-567: The late 1720s, Eugene's diplomatic skills secured powerful allies for the Emperor in dynastic struggles with the Bourbon powers . Physically and mentally fragile in his later years, Eugene saw less success as commander-in-chief during the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1735). Despite his opposition to the conflict, he loyally led a defensive campaign, preventing enemy invasion of Bavaria. During his peaceful years, Eugene accumulated

10707-500: The leading European general. His ability to snatch victory at the moment of defeat had shown the prince at his best. The principal objectives of the war had been achieved: the task Eugene had begun at Zenta was complete, and the Karlowitz settlement secured. By the terms of the Treaty of Passarowitz , signed on 21 July 1718, the Turks surrendered the Banat of Temeswar , along with Belgrade and most of Serbia , although they regained

10836-539: The lifting of the 60-day siege, and the Sultan's forces were routed. Serving under Baden, as a twenty-year-old volunteer, Eugene distinguished himself in the battle, earning commendation from Lorraine and the Emperor; he later received the nomination for the colonelcy and was awarded the Kufstein regiment of dragoons by Leopold I. In March 1684, Leopold I formed the Holy League with Poland and Venice to counter

10965-400: The men and their commanders throughout the war in Italy. "The enemy would long ago have been beaten", he wrote to Vienna, "if everyone had done their duty." So contemptuous was he of the Imperial commander, Count Carafa , he threatened to leave Imperial service. In Vienna, Eugene's attitude was dismissed as the arrogance of a young upstart, but so impressed was the Emperor by his passion for

11094-591: The morning of 5 August with approximately 70,000 men. The Turkish janissaries had some initial success, but after an Imperial cavalry attack on their flank, Ali Pasha's forces fell into confusion. Although the Imperials lost almost 5,000 dead or wounded, the Turks, who retreated in disorder to Belgrade, seem to have lost double that amount, including the Grand Vizier himself who had entered the mêlée and subsequently died of his wounds. Eugene proceeded to take

11223-526: The negotiations, but neither showed regret at the breakdown of the talks. There was no alternative but to continue the war, and in June the Allied commanders captured Douai . This success was followed by a series of minor sieges, and by the close of 1710 the Allies had cleared much of France's protective ring of fortresses. Yet there had been no final, decisive breakthrough, and this was to be the last year that Eugene and Marlborough would work together. Following

11352-654: The new German (until 1990 West German ) Armed Forces, the Bundeswehr , which were created in 1956. Currently, the highest military grades in the Bundeswehr are general and admiral . The Commander-in-Chief of the Bundeswehr is, in peacetime, according to Article 65a of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (constitution), the civilian Federal Minister of Defence , who holds supreme command authority over all soldiers. In wartime, during

11481-595: The news of victory to the Emperor in Vienna. For his services, Eugene was promoted to Lieutenant-General in November 1687. He was also gaining wider recognition. King Charles II of Spain bestowed upon him the Order of the Golden Fleece , while his cousin, Victor Amadeus, provided him with money and two profitable abbeys in Piedmont . Eugene's military career suffered a temporary setback in 1688 when, on 6 September,

11610-612: The other flank, Eugene attacked and suffered almost as severely. But sustained pressure on his extremities forced Villars to weaken his centre, thus enabling Marlborough to break through and claim victory. Villars was unable to save Mons, which subsequently capitulated on 21 October, but his resolute defence at Malplaquet—inflicting up to 25% casualties on the Allies—may have saved France from destruction. In August 1709 Eugene's chief political opponent and critic in Vienna, Prince Salm , retired as court chamberlain. Eugene and Wratislaw were now

11739-470: The outnumbered Imperial commander was helpless. Leopold I's assurances of money and men had proved illusory, but desperate appeals from Amadeus and criticism from Vienna goaded the Prince into action, resulting in the Imperialists' bloody defeat at the Battle of Cassano on 16 August. Following Leopold I's death and the accession of Joseph I to the Imperial throne in May 1705, Eugene began to receive

11868-548: The palaces. Various parts of the imperial art collection were subsequently placed on display at the Belvedere from 1781 onwards. In 1903, the state's "Moderne Galerie" was opened at the Lower Belvedere. After the fall of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the Upper Belvedere and the Orangery were converted into museums as well. The Österreichische Galerie (Austrian Gallery), as the museum was named in 1921, came to comprise

11997-412: The personal backing he desired. Joseph I proved to be a strong supporter of Eugene's supremacy in military affairs; he was the most effective emperor the Prince served and the one he was happiest under. Promising support, Joseph I persuaded Eugene to return to Italy and restore Habsburg honour. The Imperial commander arrived in theatre in mid-April 1706, just in time to organize an orderly retreat of what

12126-415: The plateau, Eugene, aware that a decisive victory alone could extricate his army, decided to attack the relief force. On the morning of 16 August, 40,000 Imperial troops marched through the fog, caught the Turks unaware, and routed Halil Pasha's army; a week later Belgrade surrendered, effectively bringing an end to the war. The victory was the crowning point of Eugene's military career and had confirmed him as

12255-510: The priesthood as the youngest son of a noble family, he chose to pursue a military career at 19. Due to his poor physique and possibly a scandal involving his mother, Louis XIV denied him a commission in the French Royal Army and forbade him from enlisting elsewhere. Embittered, Eugene fled France and entered the service of Holy Roman Empire 's Emperor Leopold I , cousin and rival of Louis XIV, where his elder brother, Louis of Savoy,

12384-603: The princes of the Empire along his eastern border, but his intimidatory moves only strengthened German resolve, and in May 1689, Leopold I and the Dutch signed an offensive compact aimed at repelling French aggression. The Nine Years' War was professionally and personally frustrating for the prince. Initially fighting on the Rhine with Max Emmanuel—receiving a slight head wound at the Siege of Mainz in 1689—Eugene subsequently transferred himself to Piedmont after Victor Amadeus joined

12513-654: The rank did not guarantee Hitler's ongoing favour, however. As the tide of the war turned, Hitler took out his frustrations on his top commanders, relieving most of the Generalfeldmarschalls of duty before the war's conclusion. Bock, Brauchitsch, Leeb, and List were all relieved of their posts in 1942 for perceived failures during Operation Barbarossa and took no further active part in the war. Kleist, Manstein and Sperrle were similarly retired in 1944 and Rundstedt and Weichs in March 1945. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder

12642-499: The rebels the Emperor had offered lenient conditions, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Szatmár on 30 April 1711. Hoping to influence public opinion in England and force the French into making substantial concessions, Eugene prepared for a major campaign. But on 21 May 1712—when the Tories felt they had secured favourable terms with their unilateral talks with the French—the Duke of Ormonde (Marlborough's successor) received

12771-554: The reigning Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. In the Royal Prussian Army , the subsequent Imperial German Army and later in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany , the rank of Generalfeldmarschall had several privileges, such as elevation to nobility, equal protocol rank with Cabinet ministers, the right of reporting directly to the monarch , and a constant escort. In 1854, the rank of Generaloberst ( colonel general )

12900-589: The revered seal which the sultan always entrusted to the Grand Vizier on an important campaign, Eugene had annihilated the Ottoman army and brought to an end the War of the Holy League. Although the Ottomans lacked western organization and training, the Savoyard prince had revealed his tactical skill, his capacity for bold decision, and his ability to inspire his men to excel in battle against a dangerous foe. After

13029-414: The siege of Vauban 's great fortress, Lille . While the Duke commanded the covering force, Eugene oversaw the siege of the town which surrendered on 22 October but Marshal Boufflers did not yield the citadel until 10 December. Yet for all the difficulties of the siege (Eugene was badly wounded above his left eye by a musket ball, and even survived an attempt to poison him), the campaign of 1708 had been

13158-574: The so-called 'restraining orders', forbidding him to take part in any military action. Eugene took the fortress of Le Quesnoy in early July, before besieging Landrecies , but Villars, taking advantage of Allied disunity, outmanoeuvred Eugene and defeated the Earl of Albermarle 's Dutch garrison at the Battle of Denain on 24 July. The French followed the victory by seizing the Allies' main supply magazine at Marchiennes , before reversing their earlier losses at Douai , Le Quesnoy and Bouchain . In one summer

13287-510: The undisputed leaders of the Austrian government: all major departments of state were in their hands or those of their political allies. Another attempt at a negotiated settlement at Geertruidenberg in April 1710 failed, largely because the English Whigs still felt strong enough to refuse concessions, while Louis XIV saw little reason to accept what he had refused the previous year. Eugene and Marlborough could not be accused of wrecking

13416-412: The war council Eugene was now part of the Emperor's inner circle, and the first president since Raimondo Montecuccoli to remain an active commander. Immediate steps were taken to improve efficiency within the army: encouragement and, where possible, money, was sent to the commanders in the field; promotion and honours were distributed according to service rather than influence; and discipline improved. But

13545-611: The war council, and as de facto president of the conference which dealt with foreign policy. In this position of influence Eugene took the lead in pressing Charles VI towards peace. The government had come to accept that further war in the Netherlands or Spain was impossible without the aid of the Maritime Powers; yet the Emperor, still hoping that somehow he could place himself on the throne in Spain, refused to make peace at

13674-607: The war with vigour one year longer, we cannot fail, with the blessing of God, to have such a peace as will give us quiet for all our days." The Imperial victory in Italy marked the beginning of Austrian rule in Lombardy, and earned Eugene the Governorship of Milan . But the following year was to prove a disappointment for the Prince and the Grand Alliance as a whole. The Emperor and Eugene (whose main goal after Turin

13803-480: The war. By 1696, the deal was done, and Amadeus transferred his troops and his loyalty to the enemy. Eugene was never to fully trust his cousin again; although he continued to pay due reverence to the Duke as head of his family, their relationship would forever after remain strained. Military honours in Italy undoubtedly belonged to the French commander Marshal Catinat , but Eugene, the one Allied general determined on action and decisive results, did well to emerge from

13932-759: The west was the growing danger posed by the Turks in the east. Turkish military ambitions had revived after 1711 when they had mauled Peter the Great 's army on the River Pruth ( Pruth River Campaign ): in December 1714 Sultan Ahmed III 's forces attacked the Venetians in the Kingdom of the Morea . To Vienna it was clear that the Turks intended to attack Hungary and undo the whole Karlowitz settlement of 1699. After

14061-401: The whole forward Allied position laboriously built up over the years to act as the springboard into France had been precipitously abandoned. With the death in December of his friend and close political ally, Count Wratislaw , Eugene became undisputed 'first minister' in Vienna. His position was built on his military successes, but his actual power was expressed through his role as president of

14190-471: Was Großadmiral (grand admiral). Unlike Kaiser Wilhelm II , Hitler distributed the rank more widely, promoting 25 Heer and Luftwaffe officers in total and two Kriegsmarine Grand Admirals. (Another promotion, that of Austrian General Eduard von Böhm-Ermolli , was honorary.) Four weeks after the Heer and Luftwaffe had won the Battle of France , Hitler promoted nine Army generals and three of

14319-594: Was retired in January 1943 following a fierce argument with Hitler over the future of the German surface fleet. Model, one of Hitler's most successful commanders, had nevertheless lost the Fuhrer's confidence by war's end and committed suicide to avoid capture and likely trial as a war criminal . Milch was relieved after conspiring unsuccessfully to have Göring removed from command of the Luftwaffe , and even Göring himself

14448-562: Was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire , ( Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall ); in the Habsburg monarchy , the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary , the rank Feldmarschall was used. The rank was the equivalent to Großadmiral (English: Grand Admiral ) in the Kaiserliche Marine and Kriegsmarine , a five-star rank , comparable to OF-10 in today's NATO naval forces . The rank existed in

14577-552: Was already a leading general in the Imperial army, as was a more distant cousin, Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria . On the night of 26 July 1683, Eugene left Paris and headed east. Years later, in his memoirs, Eugene recalled his early years in France: Some future historians, good or bad, will perhaps take the trouble to enter into the details of my youth, of which, I scarcely recollect anything. They will certainly speak of my mother; somewhat too intriguing, driven from

14706-528: Was already serving. At 20, Prince Eugene of Savoy distinguished himself during the Ottomans Siege of Vienna in 1683. Commanding troops at Budapest (1686) and Belgrade (1688) , he became a field marshal by age 25. In the Nine Years' War , he fought alongside his distant cousin, the Duke of Savoy . As commander-in-chief in Hungary, Eugene's decisive victory at the Battle of Zenta (1697) ended

14835-535: Was at Leopold I's camp that Eugene arrived in mid-August. Although Eugene was not of Austrian extraction, he did have Habsburg antecedents. His grandfather, Thomas Francis , founder of the Carignano line of the House of Savoy , was the son of Catherine Michaela of Spain —a daughter of Philip II of Spain —and the great-grandson of the Emperor Charles V . But of more immediate consequence to Leopold I

14964-482: Was clear he felt the expedition impractical, and showed none of the "alacrity which he had displayed on other occasions." Substantial French reinforcements finally brought an end to the venture, and on 22 August 1707, the Imperial army began its retirement. The subsequent capture of Susa could not compensate for the total collapse of the Toulon expedition and with it any hope of an Allied war-winning blow that year. At

15093-595: Was created in order to promote Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Prussia (the later Wilhelm I, German Emperor ) to senior rank without breaking the rule that only wartime field commanders could receive the rank of field marshal for a victory in a decisive battle or the capture of a fortification or major town. The equivalent of Generaloberst in the German Navy was Generaladmiral ( general admiral or admiral-general). In 1870, Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm —who had commanded armies during

15222-529: Was growing (Cremona and Luzzara had been celebrated as victories throughout the Allied capitals), yet because of the condition and morale of his troops the 1702 campaign had not been a success. Austria itself was now facing the direct threat of invasion from across the border in Bavaria where the state's Elector, Maximilian Emanuel, had declared for the Bourbons in August the previous year. Meanwhile, in Hungary

15351-466: Was his favoured language, he communicated with Leopold in Italian, as the Emperor (though he knew it perfectly) disliked French. But Eugene also had a reasonable command of German, which he understood very easily, something that helped him much in the military. I will devote all my strength, all my courage, and if need be, my last drop of blood, to the service of your Imperial Majesty. Eugene had no doubt as to where his new allegiance lay, and this loyalty

15480-536: Was immediately put to the test. By September, the Imperial forces under the Duke of Lorraine , together with a powerful Polish army under King John III Sobieski , were poised to strike the Sultan's army. On the morning of 12 September, the Christian forces drew up in line of battle on the south-eastern slopes of the Vienna Woods , looking down on the massed enemy camp. The day-long Battle of Vienna resulted in

15609-590: Was left of Count Reventlow 's inferior army following his defeat by Vendôme at the Battle of Calcinato on 19 April. Vendôme now prepared to defend the lines along the River Adige , determined to keep Eugene cooped to the east while the Marquis of La Feuillade threatened Turin. Feigning attacks along the Adige, Eugene descended south across the river Po in mid-July, outmanoeuvring the French commander and gaining

15738-407: Was modest, not so the petitioner", he remarked. "No one else ever presumed to stare me out so insolently." Whatever the case, Louis XIV's choice would cost him dearly twenty years later, for it would be precisely Eugene, in collaboration with the Duke of Marlborough , who would defeat the French army at Blenheim , a decisive battle which checked French military supremacy and political power. Denied

15867-520: Was promoted to the rank; he was also the last German field marshal to receive a ceremonial marshal's baton. Ferdinand Schörner , another loyal officer, was promoted on 5 April 1945. Three weeks later, he was made Commander-in-Chief of the German Army in Hitler's last will and testament . On 25 April, just five days before his own suicide , Adolf Hitler made Luftwaffe General Robert Ritter von Greim

15996-543: Was reluctant to carry on the war, and wrote to the Emperor in June that a bad peace would be better than being 'ruined equally by friend and foe'. With Austrian finances exhausted and the German states reluctant to continue the war, Charles VI was compelled to enter into negotiations. Eugene and Villars (who had been old friends since the Turkish campaigns of the 1680s) initiated talks on 26 November. Eugene proved an astute and determined negotiator, and gained favourable terms by

16125-443: Was still alive at this time. His fourth brother, Emmanuel, had died aged 14 in 1676; his third, Louis Julius (already mentioned) had died on active service in 1683, and his second brother, Philippe, died of smallpox in 1693. Eugene's remaining brother, Louis Thomas —ostracized for incurring the displeasure of Louis XIV—travelled Europe in search of a career, before arriving in Vienna in 1699. With Eugene's help, Louis found employment in

16254-526: Was still under severe strain: Rákóczi 's revolt was a major threat; and Guido Starhemberg and Victor Amadeus (who had once again switched loyalties and rejoined the Grand Alliance in 1703) had been unable to halt the French under Vendôme in northern Italy. Only Amadeus' capital, Turin , held on. Eugene returned to Italy in April 1705, but his attempts to move west towards Turin were thwarted by Vendôme's skilful manoeuvres. Lacking boats and bridging materials, and with desertion and sickness rife within his army,

16383-591: Was stripped of his offices and expelled from the Nazi Party in Hitler's last days. Schörner ignominiously abandoned his command to save himself in the war's last days. Kluge, Witzleben and Rommel were either executed or forced to commit suicide for their real or imagined roles in the 20 July plot against Hitler. By war's end, only Keitel, Kesselring, Greim and Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz were still in positions of military responsibility. The National People's Army of

16512-428: Was the fact that Eugene was a relative of Victor Amadeus II , the Duke of Savoy, a connection that the Emperor hoped might prove useful in any future confrontation with France. These ties, together with his ascetic manner and appearance (a positive advantage to him at the sombre court of Leopold I), ensured the refugee from the hated French king a warm welcome at Passau, and a position in Imperial service. Though French

16641-576: Was to take Naples and Sicily from Philip duc d'Anjou's supporters), reluctantly agreed to Marlborough's plan for an attack on Toulon —the seat of French naval power in the Mediterranean. Disunion between the Allied commanders—Victor Amadeus, Eugene, and the English Admiral Cloudesley Shovell —doomed the Toulon enterprise to failure. Although Eugene favoured some sort of attack on France's south-eastern border it

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