Misplaced Pages

#667332

129-581: The Bengal Club is a social and business club in Kolkata , India . Founded in 1827, the club is the oldest social club in India. When Kolkata was the capital of British India , the club was considered to be the "unofficial headquarters of the Raj". The club is nowadays known for its old-world ambience and patronage among contemporary social and corporate elites, and is among a small number of Indian clubs featured in

258-659: A Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron , promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria , again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on

387-578: A cautious French probe into the Saarland . The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany , which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic . On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw . The Polish counter-offensive to

516-646: A booklet by Arabinda Ray (former club president and senior corporate executive); and The Bengal Club in History , a book edited by academic Malabika Sarkar . Panckridge writes that the Bengal Club predates many important social clubs in London, though the model for the club was the Oriental Club in London (founded in 1824). The idea for the Bengal Club was conceived of in a meeting of notable Englishmen at

645-699: A broad range of events in their monthly calendars. The members choose the events in which the club is going to take part, based upon the changing interests of the members. The members themselves determine the events they will attend of those offered. Because the purpose of these clubs is split between general social interaction and taking part in the events themselves, both single and married people can take part. However, clubs tend to have more single members than married, and many clubs exist for only single people, only married couples or only people with certain sexual orientations (homosexuality, pansexuality, bisexuality or heterosexuality). Membership can be limited or open to

774-472: A few other colonial clubs in the city practising racial discrimination. In August 1959, the Home Minister of India , Govind Ballabh Pant , informed Parliament that the Bengal Club had "recently admitted some Indians as members." The Bengal Club has been mentioned in the works of many well-known authors. Among favourable mentions, Lowell Thomas referred to the club as "one of the best in the world" in

903-703: A fixture of British upper-class male society. This is not to be confused with the modern use of the phrase, which is now a euphemism for a strip club . Clubs in England and Wales were not controlled by the licensing system until the Licensing Act 1902 was passed, or in Scotland until the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1903 ( 3 Edw. 7 . c. 25) was passed. They were passed mainly to check the abuse of "clubs" being formed solely to sell intoxicating liquors free from

1032-580: A member of this club." During Keswick's presidency, Keswick controversially founded the European and Anglo-Indian Defence Association and campaigned against Lord Ripon's Ilbert Bill at the club. Another member campaigning against the Bill was R.C. Macgregor, who Ripon attacked as "a small Calcutta Barrister...who knows nothing of this country or its affairs except what he picks up in the Bar Library and

1161-524: A pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte . The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of

1290-781: A pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig , and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as

1419-475: A secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland , Finland, Estonia , Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of

SECTION 10

#1732780407668

1548-774: A similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory . In June 1940,

1677-468: A social club has a constitution which states the club's objects, its structure, location of its activities, requirements of members, membership criteria and various other rules. British clubs are usually run by a committee that will also include three 'officer' positions – chair, secretary and treasurer. Social activities clubs are a modern combination of several types of clubs and reflect today's more eclectic and varied society. These clubs are centered on

1806-477: A travelogue, while Rumer Godden described the club as serving "the best food east of Suez" in one of her novels. In contrast, W. Somerset Maugham claimed in a memoir that Prince Azam Jah had said to him: "In the Bengal Club at Calcutta they don't allow dogs or Indians". Anita Desai also alluded to the club's racially exclusionary membership, in her novel Voices in the City. In several novels and short stories,

1935-531: A two-front war, as it had in World War   I. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as

2064-602: Is limited to individuals with these conditions. Fraternities and sororities are part of "Greek life" prevalent in universities. Many young men and women pledge during their freshman year of college in order to become a "brother" or "sister" of a fraternity or sorority . These clubs are founded on principles of camaraderie and communal bonding. As social clubs, they are sometimes also philanthropic , hosting fundraisers for charities or on-campus events. World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War II or

2193-435: Is one mentioned in the autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi . Gandhi had been invited to the club by John Ellerthorpe, a correspondent of The Daily Telegraph who was staying at the club . On Gandhi's arrival, Ellerthorpe was informed that Indians were not allowed inside the club's drawing-room. He thus took Gandhi to his bedroom at the club instead. Gandhi wrote that Ellerthorpe "expressed his sorrow regarding this prejudice of

2322-611: The 1953 Mount Everest expedition ); and footballer Pelé (who played a match for the New York Cosmos in Kolkata). In the present century, the Bengal Club has hosted well-known authors and scholars as part of a "Library Talk" series, such as Nobel laureates Amartya Sen , Ben Feringa , Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo ; authors Amitav Ghosh and Jeffrey Archer ; postcolonial theorist Gayatri Spivak ; and economist Kaushik Basu . The club also organises an annual lecture in

2451-604: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression . The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. This pact had

2580-505: The Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry (such as Robert Steel , John Johnstone Jardine Keswick and Sir Apcar Alexander Apcar ). During Metcalfe's presidency, the noted editor JH Stocqueler was controversially expelled from the club for writing articles criticising a fellow member (a senior military official). The club subsequently made the following rule: "No editor of a newspaper shall henceforth be eligible for election as

2709-689: The British Empire , with fighting in the Balkans , Mediterranean, and Middle East , the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz , and naval Battle of the Atlantic . Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much of continental Europe and formed the Axis alliance with Italy , Japan , and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis in an invasion of

SECTION 20

#1732780407668

2838-660: The Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and the Associated Chambers of Commerce of India (ASSOCHAM) . Outside of the corporate world, a small number of medical practitioners and barristers have served as club president. In British India, high-ranking Indians had been occasionally entertained at the Bengal Club. In 1910, following the Minto–Morley Reforms , Sir Guy Fleetwood Wilson hosted an important dinner for rulers of princely states appointed to

2967-639: The First World War . Two members were awarded the Victoria Cross : army doctor Arthur Martin-Leake (the first person to have received the honour twice) and Sir Reginald Graham . Several members also lost their lives in the War. The Governor of Bengal later unveiled a plaque in their memory. In 1927, the Bengal Club celebrated its centenary by organising a grand banquet, with many important figures from British India in attendance. The following day, for

3096-483: The Geological Survey of India ), was established in close proximity to the Bengal Club. Much like the Bengal Club, the club had senior British officials and judges as members. In 1912, on the visit of George V to Kolkata, the club was among a set of buildings illuminated with electric lights to welcome his cavalcade. The King presented the club with his portrait. Over a hundred members of the club served in

3225-581: The German Revolution of 1918–1919 , and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic , was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into

3354-853: The German invasion of Poland and the United Kingdom and France 's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria , on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor , who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and

3483-697: The Imperial Legislative Council . In 1934, Aga Khan III dined at the club as a guest of Sir Edward Benthall, a Member of the Bengal Legislative Assembly and former Governor of the Imperial Bank of India . In the early years of independent India, C. Rajagopalachari and Kailash Nath Katju were hosted for tea by the club, while Jawaharlal Nehru lunched with the club's president and committee members at their invitation. However, several anecdotes suggest that

3612-576: The Italian mainland , and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France at Normandy , while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled

3741-553: The Japanese Navy and captured key islands . The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories ; the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops; Hitler's suicide ; and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of the Potsdam Declaration ,

3870-695: The League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant . The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria . When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to

3999-731: The Nationalist rebels , led by General Francisco Franco . Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic . More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades , also fought against

The Bengal Club - Misplaced Pages Continue

4128-598: The New York Friars' Club . Social activities clubs can be for-profit, non-profit or a combination of the two (a for-profit club with a non-profit charitable arm, for instance). Some social clubs have function halls which members, or sometimes the general public, can rent for parties. A number of Jewish community centers and other organizations, such as the YMCA , have social clubs for people with social anxiety and learning disabilities . Membership in these clubs

4257-690: The Rome–Berlin Axis . A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact , which Italy joined the following year. The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies and new regional warlords . In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan , which had long sought influence in China as

4386-619: The Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers . Nearly all the world's countries —including all the great powers —participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit of total war , blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources. Tanks and aircraft played major roles , with

4515-562: The Simon Commission , Sir Stanley Jackson ; Sir William Slim ; C. Rajagopalachari ; Jawaharlal Nehru ;. V.V. Giri ; various British High Commissioners; and a British parliamentary delegation. Other guests have included cricketer Arthur Gilligan (while captaining the Marylebone Cricket Club during a historic tour of India); mountaineers Sir Edmund Hillary , Tenzing Norgay and Sir John Hunt (following

4644-590: The Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that

4773-598: The Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation ; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe , drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact

4902-709: The Sudetenland , an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement , which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed

5031-707: The Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria , and Chahar and Suiyuan . After the 1936 Xi'an Incident , the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with

5160-428: The Town Hall of Calcutta in 1826, led by Lieutenant-Colonel (later Lieutenant-General) John Finch, son of the 4th Earl of Aylesford . Finch explained at the meeting that "nothing like a respectable hotel or coffeehouse has ever existed" in Calcutta, and "those who constitute the society of Calcutta have no place where they can spend an idle half hour agreeably" The club was formally established on 8 February 1827, with

5289-466: The Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded

The Bengal Club - Misplaced Pages Continue

5418-506: The Treaty of Craiova . The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu , with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war. In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden , which

5547-401: The United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany. Poland was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , in which they had agreed on " spheres of influence " in Eastern Europe. In 1940, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania . After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and

5676-538: The Victoria Memorial museum. These include various portraits of Maharajas painted by Valentine Cameron Prinsep (gifted to the museum in 1936). Paintings that remain with the club include several portraits of officials in British India (some painted by George Duncan Beechey ). The club also holds a sizeable collection of silverware (including rare sporting trophies from British India) and antique clocks. Bibliography Other sources Social club This article covers only three distinct types of social clubs –

5805-412: The Viscount Combermere its first patron. In 1830, Lord William Bentinck , the last Governor of Bengal and the first Governor-General of India , became the second patron of the club. The club's original members included influential figures like Charles Metcalfe , Henry Thoby Prinsep and Sir Edward Ryan , along with senior military officials. In 1838, the club passed a resolution to reciprocate with

5934-426: The Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June, Italy invaded France , declaring war on both France and

6063-432: The Working Men's Club and Institute Union (CIU) for this purpose in 1862. Many middle-class social reformers founded these clubs during the temperance movement as a place to relax without alcohol, but in time this changed. They became a combination of public houses (pubs), music-halls and clubs , becoming places to be entertained, to drink socially and to play bar games. Working men's clubs are still prevalent across

6192-451: The aftermath of World War I and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan . Key events leading up to the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria , the Spanish Civil War , the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War , and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland . World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany , under Adolf Hitler , invaded Poland , prompting

6321-404: The reunification of East and West Germany to take place and resolved most post–World War   II issues. No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. World War I had radically altered

6450-719: The 1880s, the club's membership was, by contrast, described as comprising "chiefly barristers, merchants, and bankers, with a sprinkling of civilian and military men." Notable club presidents in British India included serving or future Governors-General of India and other countries (such as Metcalfe, Lord Ellenborough , Sir John Peter Grant , Sir Henry Bartle Frere and Sir Hugh Lansdown Stephenson ); serving or future Chief Justices and Advocates General (such as Sir James William Colville , Sir George Claus Rankin and Sir James Tisdall Woodroffe); senior military officers (such as Sir Willoughby Cotton and Sir James Outram ); senior civil servants (such as Sir Clement Hindley ); and presidents of

6579-434: The 1970s, The New York Times described the Bengal Club's membership as including "some of India's most powerful industrialists". In the present century, major Indian business newspapers have similarly described the club's membership as decidedly elite. Like in British India, many modern Bengal Club presidents have served as presidents of the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and some have also served as presidents of

SECTION 50

#1732780407668

6708-409: The Allies were attempting to cut off . Denmark capitulated after six hours , and despite Allied support , Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain , who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10   May 1940. On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France . To circumvent

6837-400: The Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union . In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta , a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt . In October, Italy attacked Greece , but the attack

6966-733: The Bengal Club (customarily hosted by the club's president) and some of them also stayed at the club. Various writings also mention important political meetings taking place at the club. Royal visitors to the club (in both British and independent India) have included Leopold II ; Prince Albert Victor ; Prince Arthur (twice); Archduke Franz Ferdinand ; Grand Duke Boris Vladimirovich ; Carol II ; Edward VIII ; Aga Khan III ; Prince Philip (twice); Charles III ; Prince Edward ; and Prince Andrew . Political, diplomatic and military visitors have included Steen Andersen Bille ; Robert Ogden Tyler ; several Governors General of India; Edwin Montagu ; Sir Patrick Duncan ; Sir John Simon and other members of

7095-470: The Bengal Club otherwise practised racial discrimination towards Indians, even in postcolonial India. In the 19th century, highly eminent Indians with ties to the British establishment, such as the industrialist Dwarakanath Tagore , lawyer Prasanna Kumar Tagore and professor of medicine Soorjo Coomar Goodeve Chuckerbutty , were denied membership of the club solely on grounds of their race. In another example, Sir Rajendra Nath Mookerjee had been invited to

7224-458: The Bengal Club's patrons in his travelogues. Books like No Full Stops in India by Sir Mark Tully and Calcutta: Two Years in the City by Amit Chaudhuri provide both a more modern and personal description of the club. In Bengali literature, Satyajit Ray referred to the club in three short stories, The Acharya Murder Case , Ashamanja Babu's Dog and Gagan Chowdhury's Studio . The Bengal Club has gifted several paintings and artefacts to

7353-445: The Bengal Club." Dr William Earnest Fetherstonhaugh was the last club president in British India, as well as the first medical doctor to serve as club president. However, many Britons served as club presidents even in postcolonial India, among them Sir Anthony Elkins , Sir Anthony Hayward , Sir Alec Ogilvie and Michael Graham Satow . Bharati Ray writes that the early generation of Indian Bengal Club members "were either educated in

7482-421: The Blitz , but largely ended in May 1941 after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy , using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic . The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27   May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck . In November 1939,

7611-437: The Chowringhee building and built a skyscraper in its place, the Chatterjee International Centre. Historian David Gilmour writes that the Chowringhee building could have survived if the club had simply accepted Indians as members after Independence. In Britain, The Times reacted to the demolition by remarking: "The sun has set on the imperial splendour of the Bengal Club." Meanwhile, heritage conservationists have criticised

7740-414: The Chowringhee building to Grindlay's was "manna from heaven" for the club from a financial standpoint. However, the Indian government unexpectedly refused permission to Grindlay's to use the Chowringhee building. The bank was compelled to sell the building ("reportedly for a song") to Benoy Kumar Chatterjee, a businessman with a controversial reputation. Chatterjee, in violation of building laws, demolished

7869-423: The East" (by scholar and historian Sir George William Forrest ) . By the close of the century, the Bengal Club became one of a handful of buildings in British India to be supplied with electricity. Panckridge writes that the Bengal Club was originally intended to be called the Calcutta United Service Club. Ironically, a later (unconnected) institution with a similar name, the Bengal United Service Club (now home to

SECTION 60

#1732780407668

7998-405: The European Axis declaring war on the US. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia , but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the naval Battle of Midway ; Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and

8127-410: The French possessions of Syria and Lebanon , assisted by the Free French . With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia , the two powers signed

8256-426: The Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6   October . Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of

8385-506: The Governor of West Bengal in attendance), allowed women to become members in their own right in 1988, and increased facilities offered to members significantly from the 1990s onwards. Sarkar and her co-contributors generally describe the Bengal Club as continuing with many British-era traditions in the present century. The international press has provided a similar description of the club, variously referring to its menus, decor, artworks, dress codes and waiters' uniforms. Among events of note,

8514-450: The Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War   II but generally favoured the Axis . His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front . In July 1937, Japan captured

8643-452: The Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto , and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan . Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged

8772-403: The Russell Street building. In the 1960s, the club ran into heavy debt, as "class and race exclusivity had shrunk the membership". Rather than expanding the club's membership to raise revenues, the club took the decision to maintain its rarefied membership and sell the Chowringhee building to Grindlay's Bank , retaining only the Russell Street premises as before. Macalpine writes that the sale of

8901-423: The Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region . In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to

9030-421: The Soviet Union , opening the Eastern Front and initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed to dominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific , and by 1937 was at war with the Republic of China . In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific , including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan, and

9159-418: The Soviet Union and Mongolia . The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron , which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed

9288-756: The Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine , the Baltic states and Byelorussia . However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued

9417-506: The US dropped the first atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago , the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Soviet declaration of war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria , Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945 , marking

9546-581: The United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence ; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece . Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel . Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced

9675-542: The United Kingdom attacked on 3   July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours . The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain . The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in

9804-518: The United Kingdom or trained in British corporate ethics." Many were heads of important British corporations of the time. In 1968, Dorab Pestonjee Maneckjee Kanga, a senior corporate executive and member of the Parsi community, became the first Indian president of the club. A number of well-known Parsis subsequently became president, such as CR Irani and Dara Pirojshaw Antia , as did a prominent member of India's Armenian community , Pearson Surita . In

9933-670: The United Kingdom, although not as popular. In the Dutch East Indies , sociëteits were established in various cities. Modern clubs include Urban Diversion in San Francisco, which opened in 2003 as a general adventure and activities social club, and the Groucho Club in Soho , London, which opened in 1985 as "the antidote to the traditional club." The "traditional club" referred to is the elitist gentlemen's club ,

10062-461: The United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14   June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany ; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones , and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime , which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which

10191-660: The United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased . In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases . Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in

10320-404: The War (above the rank of Lieutenant-colonel ); the admittance of Indian members (in 1959); the allowance of women inside the club's premises (initially in fits and starts, and eventually without restriction in 1967); the receipt of valuable paintings and artefacts (gifted by club members and presidents); and visits by many notable dignitaries and public figures. However, Macalpine also chronicles

10449-606: The Yellow River ; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan , but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with

10578-418: The activities available to the club members in the city or area in which the club is located. Some have a traditional clubhouse, bar or restaurant where members gather, while others do not. Events can include a broad range of activities, from sporting events and social parties to ballet , arts or book clubs . Unlike traditional clubs, they are not limited to one kind of event or special interest, but include

10707-590: The best examples of home-made Kolkata biryani . In 1827, the Bengal Club was housed in a four-storeyed building in Esplanade , known as Gordon's Buildings (now demolished), for a rent of Rupees 800 every month. The "Agency House Crisis" (a major financial crisis of the 1830s, linked to the indigo trade) affected the club severely. Unable to pay rent, the club shifted to a house in Tank Square (later renamed Dalhousie Square ). In 1845, with its finances improving,

10836-520: The bombing of Kolkata by Japan. Macalpine claims that the club's revenues were further dented by strikes by "menial" staff motivated by "anti-British" sentiment, and various excise, prohibition and labour laws. By the late 1960s, the club's finances were so badly hit that it sold half of its premises. Ray states that the club celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1977 with a large banquet (with the British High Commissioner to India and

10965-461: The capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese . In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang , but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding

11094-468: The club as "a delightful resort" with "spacious and beautiful" bedrooms and a well-stocked library. The club's present facilities include accommodation rooms, banquet halls, bars, lounges, dining rooms, conference rooms, a library and indoor sports facilities. The club's website lists various clubs in India and overseas as among its affiliated clubs. In the 19th century, the Bengal Cub's food and drink

11223-551: The club as suffering from a series of financial setbacks during this period, exacerbated by the fact that the club's membership size was small and highly selective. The 1934 Nepal–India earthquake apparently caused great damage to the club's building and necessitated costly repairs, while a large number of expensive renovations were also undertaken in successive decades. Meanwhile, the Second World War resulted in food and alcohol shortages, and an atmosphere of panic followed

11352-449: The club by Lord Minto , but the club erected a tent on the lawn for Mookherjee to dine in, rather than allowing him inside. In 1907, the notable Baghdadi Jew merchant Sir David Ezra was refused membership. It has also been claimed that Ernest Richard Hartley, a British businessman and father of the actress Vivien Leigh , was effectively expelled from the club after marrying her mother, a woman of Anglo-Indian descent. Another anecdote

11481-429: The club did not admit Indians as members until 1959. Macalpine writes that an extraordinary general meeting of the club was held in 1959, where "an overwhelming majority of members voted conclusively" to amend the policy, amidst "pressure from outside". According to The Times , the then government of West Bengal had allegedly threatened to revoke the club's alcohol licence if it did not do so. The report also identified

11610-569: The club has been mentioned in a humorous or ironic way, as a meeting place for eccentric aristocratic gentlemen. Such examples include the Booker-prize winning novel The Siege of Krishnapur by J.G. Farrell , A Division of the Spoils by Paul Scott , A Suitable Boy by Vikram Seth , Sea of Poppies by Amitav Ghosh , and Bribery, Corruption Also by H.R.F. Keating . Similarly, among non-fiction works, Rudyard Kipling caricatured

11739-694: The club has hosted the award ceremony for the 2004 Commonwealth Writers' Prize , where The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time and A Distant Shore were awarded the top prizes. Travel books from the 19th century suggest that the Bengal Club was then one of Kolkata's principal luxury accommodations, along with the Great Eastern Hotel and the Spence's Hotel (now demolished). One visitor from that period, John Fletcher Hurst , described

11868-640: The club shifted to a building in Russell Street, which had served as the residence of Thomas Babington Macaulay . The original owner of the land was Kaliprasanna Singha , a well-known writer and philanthropist. The club later expanded to a new, adjacent building in Chowringhee . The new building was designed by Vincent Esch , superintending architect of the Victoria Memorial , and formally opened in 1911. Esch also dismantled and redesigned

11997-403: The conflict well into 1941. In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy " and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it

12126-526: The creation of a " New Roman Empire ". Adolf Hitler , after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of

12255-501: The demolition of the Chowringhee building (described by Ian Jack to be "as grand as the grandest seafront hotel") and called for greater government efforts to preserve architectural heritage. According to oral legend, a king cobra was spotted by construction workers when the Tank Square premises were being built. The workers, regarding the creature as the sacred guardian of the place, refused to continue their work. A Hindu priest

12384-757: The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference . The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament , as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War   I , irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of

12513-626: The elite list of the "Platinum Clubs of the World". Works that provide detailed historical information about the club include A Short History of the Bengal Club 1827–1927 , a book by Sir Hugh Rahere Panckridge (Barrister-at-law and later judge of the Calcutta High Court ); The Bengal Club 1927–1970 , a book by R.I. Macalpine (former officer of the Imperial Forest Service ); A History of The Bengal Club (1970–2000 ),

12642-662: The end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia , which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria . Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied

12771-511: The end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming

12900-575: The first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia , staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo . China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai , Rehe and Hebei , until

13029-458: The first time in the club's history, female guests were allowed to enter the club for a one-off tour. According to Macalpine, the club's other milestones in the 20th century included its designation as a public air raid shelter and medical aid post during the Second World War ; the grant of honorary membership to around 1,200 armed forces personnel stationed in Kolkata during different phases of

13158-864: The former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident , which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany . From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan , engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou , and fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan . Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai , but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing

13287-521: The general public, as can the events. Most clubs have a limited membership based upon specific criteria and restrict the events to members to increase their feeling of security, creating an increased sense of camaraderie and belonging. There are many examples of private social clubs, including the University Club of Chicago , The Mansion on O Street in D.C., the Penn Club of New York City and

13416-747: The historic gentlemen's clubs , the modern activities clubs and an introduction to fraternities and sororities . This article does not cover a variety of other types of clubs having some social characteristics. Social clubs have commonly been used by the Mafia as meeting places, many mob crews even being named after the club that they are based out of (The Palma Boys Crew, The Gemini Crew, The Veterans & Friends Crew). Working men's clubs developed in Britain during Victorian times as institutes where working class men could attend lectures and take part in recreational pursuits. The Reverend Henry Solly founded

13545-525: The invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia ) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia ), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana , or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of

13674-735: The latter enabling the strategic bombing of population centres and delivery of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in war. World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, resulting in 70 to 85 million deaths , more than half being civilians. Millions died in genocides , including the Holocaust of European Jews, as well as from massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory, Germany , Austria , Japan , and Korea were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders . The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in

13803-412: The local Englishmen" and apologised to him. Closer to Indian independence, Nehru criticised the Bengal Club, in his book The Discovery of India , for discriminating against Indians while still using the term "Bengal" in its name. Echoing Nehru, the then Governor-General of India, Lord Mountbatten , conveyed that either the club ought to permit Indians or rename itself to the "United Kingdom Club". Yet,

13932-416: The memory of Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi , delivered by a former international cricket captain. Past speakers have included Imran Khan , Brian Lara , David Gower , Greg Chappell , Sir Clive Lloyd , Kapil Dev , Mike Brearley , Courtney Walsh and Sourav Ganguly . By the 1850s, the Bengal Club's membership remained confined to a few titled noblemen, senior government and military officials, and judges. In

14061-575: The now-extinct Byculla Club of Mumbai (then Bombay). Later, reciprocal relations were established with the Madras Club , the Hong Kong Club and the now-defunct Shanghai Club . By the 1870s, the club was being described in travelogues as "the most swell establishment of the kind in the East" (by American Civil War general Robert Ogden Tyler ) and "an institution known to all the dwellers of

14190-502: The permanent members of its security council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War . In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion . World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939 with

14319-589: The political European map with the defeat of the Central Powers —including Austria-Hungary , Germany , Bulgaria , and the Ottoman Empire —and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia , which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I , such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of

14448-599: The port of Tobruk . By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact ; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece , commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at

14577-722: The remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state , the Slovak Republic . Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region , formerly the German Memelland . Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig ,

14706-565: The restrictions of the licensing acts, but it applied to all kinds of clubs in England and Wales. The act required the registration of every club that occupied any premises habitually used for the purposes of a club and in which intoxicating liquor was supplied to members or their guests. The secretary of every club was required to give a return to the clerk to the justices of the petty sessional division with this information: Social and recreational clubs may be considered tax-exempt 501(c)(7) organizations under certain circumstances. Typically,

14835-462: The significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles . Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions , while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces . The German Empire was dissolved in

14964-498: The start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ( V-J Day ), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia . A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed

15093-593: The strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg . The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics,

15222-645: The two wars became World War II in 1941. Other proposed starting dates for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War   II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil War as

15351-513: The war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian , and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising

15480-475: The war. Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland ; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland ; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia . On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which

15609-512: The west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw . On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan , the Soviet Union invaded Poland under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to

15738-707: The world order , and soon began a massive rearmament campaign . France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia , which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed

15867-614: Was invaded by Germany. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers . The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary , Slovakia , and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to

15996-525: Was also known for a type of sweet mango chutney. Internationally, the item became generically known as "Bengal Club chutney" and was marketed by different traders under that name. Harrods and Eaton's also sold versions of the item. In modern times, various books have discussed the club's culinary history and shared some of its signature recipes. Condé Nast Traveler has listed the Bengal Club's orange soufflé as one of eight recommended recipes from colonial Indian clubs, and mentioned its biryani as one of

16125-456: Was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign

16254-772: Was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa . The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with

16383-441: Was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement . In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed

16512-438: Was spoken of favourably in a number of travelogues and cookbooks. The club's head chef was a French cook, who later became the private cook of the Nawab of Oudh . Food historian Colleen Taylor Sen credits the Bengal Club with pioneering and popularising the masala omelette . At one point, the club supposedly housed "four cooks who made nothing but omelettes all day long and wouldn't soil their hands doing anything else." The club

16641-418: Was then brought to the premises to perform rituals and propitiate the snake with milk. The snake eventually left the premises and work resumed. In acknowledgement of the incident, the club adopted the symbol of a king cobra as its emblem in British India. The emblem is visible in a lunette above a tower at the club. In British India, many high-ranking royals and politicians had banquets held in their honour at

#667332