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88-591: Benevento occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum , originally Maleventum or even earlier Maloenton . Its former Latin name translates to "good" or "fair wind". In the imperial period it was supposedly founded by Diomedes after the Trojan War . Due to its artistic and cultural significance, the Santa Sofia Church in Benevento was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, as part of

176-464: A remains in most positions Long ā remains in an initial or medial position. Final ā starts to sound similar to [ɔː] so that it is written ú or, rarely, u . Short e "generally remains unchanged;" before a labial in a medial syllable, it becomes u or i , and before another vowel, e raises to higher-mid [ẹ], written í . Long ē similarly raises to higher-mid [ẹ], the sound of written í or íí . Short i becomes written í . Long ī

264-433: A Caprara, Sant'Angelo a Piesco, San Vitale, Scafa, Serretelle, Sponsilli, Torre Alfieri, and Vallereccia. The economy of Benevento area is traditionally agricultural. Main products include vine , olives and tobacco . The main industry is that of food processing (sweets and pasta), although textile, mechanics, and construction companies are present. The Stadio Ciro Vigorito is a multi-use stadium in Benevento, which

352-669: A Samnite city, and must have already been a place of strength as the Romans did not venture to attack it during their first two wars with the Samnites; it appears, however, to have fallen into their hands during the Third Samnite War , though the exact occasion is unknown. Benevento was certainly in the power of the Romans in 274 BC, when Pyrrhus of Epirus was defeated in a great battle , fought in its immediate neighborhood, by

440-402: A candelabrum of 1311. A marble statue of the apostle San Bartolomeo, by Nicola da Monteforte, is also from the 14th century. The cathedral also contains a statue of St. Giuseppe Moscati , a native of the area. The cathedral was completely destroyed in 1943 because of bombardments: what remained of the cathedral were just the bell tower, the façade and the crypt. Another testimony of the cathedral

528-634: A group of seven historic buildings inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.) . The patron saint of Benevento is Saint Bartholomew , the Apostle , whose relics are kept there at the Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta . Benevento, as Maleventum , was one of the chief cities of Samnium , situated on the Appian Way at a distance of 51 kilometres (32 mi) east of Capua on

616-628: A half) and Rome (2 hours). The nearest airports are: Oscan language Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy . The language is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of the Italic languages . Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian and South Picene . Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including the Samnites , the Aurunci ( Ausones ), and

704-545: A number of Jews to convert to Christianity . He was reproved for doing that by Pope Alexander II . When Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela visited Benevento in 1159 or 1165, he described 200 Jewish families living in it. Being under Papal rule (unlike the rest of southern Italy), the Jewish community of Benevento was not expelled, as most other southern Italy Jewish communities in 1541. Nevertheless, they were expelled from town later on 1569, under Pope Paul IV . In 1617

792-440: A palace, and the principality continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon granted it to his minister Talleyrand with the title of sovereign prince. Talleyrand was never to settle down and actually rule his new principality ; in 1815 Benevento was returned to the papacy . It was united with Italy in 1860. Several popes personally visited Benevento. In 1128 Honorius II tried inviting Roger II of Sicily into

880-528: A post of importance, on account of its proximity to Campania , and its strength as a fortress. In its immediate neighborhood were fought two of the most decisive actions of the war: the Battle of Beneventum (214 BC), in which the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated by Tiberius Gracchus ; the other in 212 BC, when the camp of Hanno, in which he had accumulated a vast quantity of corn and other stores,

968-569: A sound shift in Oscan to become ~[uː]. Í was used to denote a higher-mid [ẹ] . [REDACTED] The Z of the native alphabet is pronounced [ts] . Doubling of vowels was used to denote length but a long I is written IÍ . Oscan written with the Greek alphabet was identical to the standard alphabet with the addition of two letters: one for the native alphabet's H and one for its V . The letters η and ω do not indicate quantity. Sometimes,

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1056-462: A surviving local toponym. In phonology too, Oscan exhibited a number of clear differences from Latin: thus, Oscan 'p' in place of Latin 'qu' (Osc. pis , Lat. quis ) (compare the similar P-Celtic/Q-Celtic cleavage in the Celtic languages ); 'b' in place of Latin 'v'; medial 'f' in contrast to Latin 'b' or 'd' (Osc. mefiai , Lat. mediae ). Oscan is considered to be the most conservative of all

1144-429: Is a circular Lombard edifice dating to c. 760, now modernized, of small proportions, and is one of the main examples of religious Lombard architecture . The plan consists of a central hexagon with, at each vertex, columns taken from the temple of Isis ; these are connected by arches which support the cupola. The inner hexagon is in turn enclosed in a decagonal ring with eight white limestone pillars and two columns next to

1232-403: Is eo die (8) comitia non habuerit. In English: (3) … he shall take oath with the assent of the majority of the senate, provided that not less than (4) 40 are present, when the matter is under advisement. If anyone by right of intercession shall prevent the assembly, before preventing it, (5) he shall swear wittingly in the assembly without guile, that he prevents this assembly rather for

1320-539: Is mostly used as the home venue of Serie B side Benevento Calcio . Benevento is connected to Naples through the modern SS7 Appia state road, and then local roads starting from Arienzo . It is 17 kilometres (11 miles) from the Naples-Bari A16 motorway. The SS372 Telesina state road allows reaching the A1 Naples-Rome, leading to the latter in less than three hours. Benevento railway station , on

1408-573: Is not present in Latin). Oscan nouns, like in Latin, are divided into multiple declension patterns. The second declension in Oscan has a few features that distinguish it from its Latin counterpart. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows: Like in Latin, the third declension in Oscan is a merger of the i -stem nouns with the consonant-stem nouns. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows. Neuters are not attested. Verbs in Oscan are inflected for

1496-518: Is possible that both languages existed simultaneously under different conditions, in which Latin was given political, religious, and administrative importance while Oscan was considered a "low" language. This phenomenon is referred to as diglossia with bilingualism. Some Oscan graffiti exists from the 1st century CE, but it is rare to find evidence from Italy of Latin-speaking Roman citizens representing themselves as having non–Latin-speaking ancestors. Oscan speakers came into close contact with

1584-471: Is spelt with i but when written with doubling as a mark of length with ií . Short o remains mostly unchanged, written ú ; before a final -m , o becomes more like u . Long ō becomes denoted by u or uu . Short u generally remains unchanged; after t , d , n , the sound becomes that of iu . Long ū generally remains unchanged; it changed to an ī sound in monosyllables, and may have changed to an ī sound for final syllables. Oscan had

1672-575: Is the XII century bronze door, the Janua Major, composed of 72 tiles with bas relief, whose fragments were rebuilt after the Second World War. The current monument, with its modern aspect, was completed in 1965 and restored between 2005 and 2012. The castle of Benevento, best known as Rocca dei Rettori or Rocca di Manfredi , stands at the highest point of the town, commanding the valley of

1760-551: Is vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in 114, with important reliefs relating to its history. Enclosed in the walls, this construction marked the entrance in Benevento of the Via Traiana , the road built by the Spanish emperor to shorten the path from Rome to Brindisi . The reliefs show

1848-519: The African expedition of Scipio Africanus in 205 BC, and he died sometime not long thereafter. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus was one of the three candidates for the position of Pontifex Maximus c. 212 BC, when he and another senior candidate Titus Manlius Torquatus , both former censors, were pipped at the post by a younger man, Publius Licinius Crassus who was not yet a curule aedile and thus probably aged in his middle thirties. Nevertheless, Flaccus made

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1936-600: The Boii . He was a praetor in 215 BC and in 213 BC Master of Horse in the dictatorship of Gaius Claudius Centho . He was again consul in 212 BC, during the Second Punic War , winning a victory over Hanno, son of Bomilcar and capturing his camp at Beneventum . He was defeated by Hannibal at the first Battle of Capua , then captured Capua in 211 BC while serving as a proconsul . In his fourth term as consul (209 BC), he retook Lucania and Bruttium . He opposed

2024-557: The Byzantines between 891 and 895. The so-called Langobardia minor was unified for the last time by Duke Pandolfo Testa di Ferro , who expanded his extensive control in the Mezzogiorno from his base in Benevento and Capua . Before his death (March 981), he had also gained the title of Duke of Spoleto from Emperor Otto I . However, both Benevento and Salerno rebelled to his son and heir, Pandulf II . The first decades of

2112-593: The Caserta - Foggia railway, has fast connections from Rome to Avellino, Bari and Lecce. Trains to Campobasso have been mostly replaced by bus services. The connection to Naples is ensured by three stations on the MetroCampania NordEst inter-urban metro line. Recently, in May 2021, the company Italo also inaugurated its new route that passes by Benevento and connects the city with Milan (in 5 hours and

2200-510: The Jewish community was given permission to settle back in town, though 13 years later they were expelled once again after being accused of Well poisoning . Since then, there was no organized Jewish community in Benevento. Nevertheless, Jews had lived in Benevento in an unorganized manner during the past centuries, in addition to a few Israeli Jews living in town in recent years, occasionally suffering of Anti-Semitic incidents. The Arch of Trajan The importance of Benevento in classical times

2288-611: The Latium population. Early Latin texts have been discovered nearby major Oscan settlements. For example, the Garigliano Bowl was found close to Minturnae , less than 40 kilometers from Capua , which was once a large Oscan settlement. Oscan had much in common with Latin , though there are also many striking differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were absent or represented by entirely different forms. For example, Latin volo , velle , volui , and other such forms from

2376-518: The Oscan or Samnite name was Maloeis , or Malieis (Μαλιείς in Ancient Greek ), whence the form Maleventum would derive, like Agrigentum from Acragas (now Agrigento ), Selinuntium from Selinus (the ruins of which are at now Selinunte ), etc. As a Roman colony Beneventum seems to have quickly become a flourishing place; and in the Second Punic War was repeatedly occupied by Roman generals as

2464-716: The Po Valley : the duchy would have been founded in 576 by some soldiers led by Zotto , autonomously from the Lombard king. Zotto's successor was Arechis I (died in 640), from the Duchy of Friuli , who captured Capua and Crotone , sacked the Byzantine Amalfi but was unable to capture Naples . After his reign the Eastern Roman Empire had only Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, Sorrento, the tip of Calabria and

2552-582: The Porta Aurea, on account of its fair proportions and the wealth and excellence of its sculptural adornments. Other considerable remains There are other considerable remains from ancient era: Many inscriptions and ancient fragments may be seen built into the old houses. In 1903 the foundations of the Temple of Isis were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many fragments of fine sculptures in both

2640-480: The Proto-Indo-European root *welh₁- ('to will') were represented by words derived from *ǵʰer- ('to desire'): Oscan herest ('(s)he shall want, (s)he shall desire', German cognate 'begehren', Dutch 'begeren', English cognate 'yearn') as opposed to Latin volent (id.). Latin locus (place) was absent and represented by the hapax slaagid (place), which Italian linguist Alberto Manco has linked to

2728-713: The Sidicini . The latter two tribes were often grouped under the name " Osci ". The Oscan group is part of the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic family, and includes the Oscan language and three variants ( Hernican , Marrucinian and Paelignian ) known only from inscriptions left by the Hernici , Marrucini and Paeligni , minor tribes of eastern central Italy. Adapted from the Etruscan alphabet, the Central Oscan alphabet

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2816-555: The University of Sannio and several research institutes . Epigraphical evidence show that a Jewish community had existed in Benevento since the fifth century at least. At the 10th century, Jewish traveller Ahimaaz ben Paltiel describes in his chronicle the Jewish community of Benevento, among other southern Italy towns. One of his relatives established a Yeshiva in town and a large part of his family ended residing in Benevento. In 1065, prince Landulf IV of Benevento forced

2904-558: The earthquake of 1688 , and rebuilt in Baroque forms by commission of the then cardinal Orsini of Benevento (later Pope Benedict XIII ). The original forms were hidden, and were recovered only after the discussed restoration of 1951. In 2011, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of a group of seven inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.) . The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, with its arcaded façade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279 by

2992-398: The n is lost) and possibly before nf and nx as well. Anaptyxis , the development of a vowel between a liquid or nasal and another consonant, preceding or following, occurs frequently in Oscan; if the other (non-liquid/nasal) consonant precedes, the new vowel is the same as the preceding vowel. If the other consonant follows, the new vowel is the same as the following vowel. Short

3080-482: The "native" Oscan script, the South Oscan script which was based on Greek, and the ultimately prevailing Roman Oscan script. In coastal zones of Southern Italy, Oscan is thought to have survived three centuries of bilingualism with Greek between 400 and 100 BCE, making it "an unusual case of stable societal bilingualism" wherein neither language became dominant or caused the death of the other; however, over

3168-455: The 11th century saw two more German-descended rulers in southern Italy: Henry II , conquered in 1022 both Capua and Benevento, but returned after the failed siege of Troia . Conrad II obtained similar results in 1038. In these years the three states (Benevento, Capua, and Salerno) were often engaged in local wars and disputes that favoured the rise of the Normans from mercenaries to ruler of

3256-479: The 1990s) by the Christian Democracy . Public sector grew considerably during this period, becoming a prime source of employment for many inhabitants of the province; the town also saw increasing demographic expansion, resulting in a somewhat incontrolled building boom . In recent years, several urban renewal projects have been carried out in the old city centre, and Benevento has become the seat of

3344-687: The Egyptian and the Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city wall , reconstructed in 663 under the fear of an attack by the Byzantine emperor Constans II , the temple having been destroyed by order of the bishop, St Barbatus , to provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, 0. Marucchi and L. Savignoni in Notizie degli Scavi , 1904, 107 sqq.). The church of Santa Sofia

3432-482: The Latin word originally meant ‘piece (of meat).’ Oscan tangin- "judgement, assent" is ultimately related to English 'think'. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 237 BC) Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (c. 277 BC – 202 BC), son of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 264 BC) , was consul in 237 BC, fighting the Gauls in northern Italy . He was censor in 231 BC, and again consul in 224 BC, when he subdued

3520-600: The Stellatine tribe. Beneventum retained its importance down to the close of the Empire, and though during the Gothic wars it was taken by Totila , and its walls razed to the ground, they were restored, as well as its public buildings, shortly after; and P. Diaconus speaks of it as a very wealthy city, and the capital of all the surrounding provinces. Beneventum indeed seems to have been a place of much literary cultivation; it

3608-550: The Two Sicilies ( Principato Ultra  [ it ] , Molise , Terra di Lavoro , Capitanata ). In the following decades, the town saw considerable expansion and modernization; the local economy became increasingly diversified, with the traditional agricultural sector (especially the cultivation of tobacco and cereals ) being joined by growing confectionery , mechanical, liquor , lumber and brickmaking industries. During World War II , Benevento's key position in

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3696-455: The archaic Etruscan alphabet during the 7th century BCE, but a recognizably Oscan variant of the alphabet is attested only from the 5th century BCE. At the beginning of the 3rd century BCE its sign inventory was extended over the classical Etruscan alphabet by the introduction of lowered variants of I and U, transcribed as Í and Ú. Ú came to be used to represent Oscan /o/, while U was used for /u/ as well as historical long */oː/, which had undergone

3784-542: The archbishop Romano Capodiferro) dates from the 9th century. It was rebuilt in 1114, the façade inspired by the Pisan Gothic style. Its bronze doors, adorned with bas-reliefs , are notable example of Romanesque art which may belong to the beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a basilica , the double aisles carried on ancient columns. There are ambones resting on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and coloured marble mosaic, and

3872-711: The banks of the river Calor (now Calore). There is some discrepancy as to the tribe to which it belonged at contact: Pliny the Elder expressly assigns it to the Hirpini , while Livy 's wording is somewhat obscure and Ptolemy considers the town as belonging to the Samnites proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. All ancient writers concur in representing it as a very ancient city, with Gaius Julius Solinus and Stephanus of Byzantium ascribing its foundation to Diomedes  —  this legend appears to have been adopted by

3960-614: The calamities which at that time befell so many cities of Samnium; towards the close of the Roman Republic Benevento is described as one of the most opulent and flourishing cities of Italy. Under the Second Triumvirate its territory was portioned out by the Triumvirs to their veterans, and subsequently a fresh colony was established there by Augustus , who greatly enlarged its domain by the addition of

4048-471: The central area of the Biferno river in the neighboring region of Molise , seeking to expand their political dominance. Benevento was acclaimed by a chronicler as a "second Pavia"— Ticinum geminum —after the Lombard capital was lost. This principality was short-lived: in 851, Salerno broke off under Siconulf and, by the end of that century, Capua was independent as well. Benevento was ruled again by

4136-469: The city in order to discuss peace terms, however, Roger refused to enter the city, for he felt unsafe within the city. Thus the two instead met on a bridge near Benevento. Only a year later, the city revolted against the Papal rule and Honorius had to beg Roger for assistance. In 1130, Anacletus II fled from Rome to the safety of Benevento after hearing that his rival, Innocent II was gaining recognition in

4224-476: The city's inhabitants, who in the time of Procopius pretended to exhibit the tusks of the Calydonian Boar as proof of their descent. Sextus Pompeius Festus , on the contrary ( s. v. Ausoniam), related that the city was founded by Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe , a tradition which indicates that it was an ancient Ausonian city prior to its conquest by the Samnites. It first appears in history as

4312-478: The civil and military deeds of Trajan. A great part of the arch is decorated with scenes in bas relief: particularly the pillars directed to the town represent scenes of peace and military scenes. The two faces of the Arch are identical in the arrangement of the reliefs. That the reliefs are for the most part not merely fanciful, nor chiefly conventional and decorative in theme and treatment, is also clear at first sight. They plainly refer to actual events and actions in

4400-417: The civil war, Benevento sided with Robert and ousted Anacletus's supporters from the city. Manfred of Sicily lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from the town, in the course of the Battle of Benevento . After the unification of Italy , Benevento was made provincial capital of the new Province of Benevento , comprising territories formerly belonging to the dissolved Kingdom of

4488-427: The clusters ηι and ωϝ denote the diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ respectively while ει and oυ are saved to denote monophthongs /iː/ and /uː/ of the native alphabet. At other times, ει and oυ are used to denote diphthongs, in which case o denotes the /uː/ sound. When written in the Latin alphabet, the Oscan Z does not represent [ts] but instead [z] , which is not written differently from [s] in

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4576-400: The consul Manius Curius Dentatus . Six years later (268 BC) they further sought to secure its possession by establishing there a Roman colony with Latin rights. It was at this time that it first assumed the name of Beneventum, having previously been called Maleventum, a name which the Romans regarded as of evil augury, and changed into one of a more fortunate signification. It is probable that

4664-523: The course of the Roman period , both Oscan and Greek were progressively effaced from Southern Italy, excepting the controversial possibility of Griko representing a continuation of ancient dialects of Greek. Oscan's usage declined following the Social War . Graffiti in towns across the Oscan speech area indicate it remained in colloquial usage. One piece of evidence that supports the colloquial usage of

4752-479: The east and south bordered on the territories of Aeclanum (now Mirabella Eclano ) and Abellinum (now Avellino ). An inscription has preserved to us the names of several of the pagi or villages dependent upon Beneventum, but their sites cannot be identified. The city's most ancient coins bear the legend "Malies" or "Maliesa", which have been supposed to belong to the Samnite, or pre-Samnite, Maleventum. Coins with

4840-508: The entrance. The church has a fine cloister of the 12th century, constructed in part of fragments of earlier buildings. This cloister today is the location of the Museo del Sannio. The church interior was once totally frescoed by Byzantine artists: fragments of these paintings, portraying the Histories of Christ , can be still seen in the two side apses. Santa Sofia was almost destroyed by

4928-861: The following categories: Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings: Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings: Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular -ter , plural -nter . Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- and -s- perfects are not attested in Oscan. Instead, Oscan uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as deded 'gave', -tt- suffix as in prúfa-tt-ed 'approved', -k- suffix as in kella-k-ed 'collected, and -f- suffix as in aíkda-f-ed 'rebuilt'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. Other tenses are formed by suffixation: The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on

5016-473: The following diphthongs: The sounds of diphthongs remain unchanged from the Proto-Indo-European origins. The consonant inventory of Oscan is as follows: In Oscan, s between vowels did not undergo rhotacism as it did in Latin and Umbrian; but it was voiced, becoming the sound /z/ . However, between vowels, the original cluster rs developed either to a simple r with lengthening on

5104-541: The known Italic languages , and among attested Indo-European languages it is rivaled only by Greek in the retention of the inherited vowel system with the diphthongs intact. Oscan was originally written in a specific "Oscan alphabet", one of the Old Italic scripts derived from (or cognate with) the Etruscan alphabet . Later inscriptions are written in the Greek and Latin alphabets . The Osci probably adopted

5192-410: The land within the boundaries where the temple of Hercules stands in the middle, may the senate allow him to build outside of the walls that encircle the sanctuary of Hercules, across the road leads there. And a building that a man from Nola builds, shall be of use by the people of Nola. And a building that a man from Abella builds, shall be of use by the people of Abella. But beyond the wall that encircle

5280-402: The language is the presence of Oscan graffiti on walls of Pompeii that were reconstructed after the earthquake of 62 CE , which must therefore have been written between 62 and 79 CE. Other scholars argue that this is not strong evidence for the survival of Oscan as an official language in the area, given the disappearance of public inscriptions in Oscan after Roman colonization. It

5368-415: The legend "BENVENTOD" (an old Latin – or Samnite – form for Beneventor-um), must have been struck after it became a Latin colony. Not long after it had been sacked by Totila and its walls razed (545), Benevento became the seat of a powerful Lombard duchy . The circumstances of the creation of duchy of Benevento are disputed. Lombards were present in southern Italy well before the complete conquest of

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5456-479: The life of Trajan, whose effigy, sometimes decapitated, appears in all but two of them, one of which is the only one on all the Arch that is substantially defective. The height of the monument is of 15.6 metres (51 ft), with an arch of 8 m (26 ft), a structure composed of limestone rocks and a marble covering. The arch was put during the Middle Age in the fenced area of the town, in order to represent

5544-492: The maritime cities of Apulia left in southern Italy. In the following decades, Benevento added some territories to the Roman-Byzantine duchy by conquest, but the main enemy was now the northern Lombard Kingdom itself. King Liutprand intervened several times, imposing a candidate of his own to the realm's succession; his successor Ratchis declared the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento to be foreign countries where it

5632-410: The native alphabet. When Oscan inscriptions are quoted, it is conventional to transliterate those in the "Oscan" alphabet into Latin boldface , those in the "Latin" alphabet into Latin italics , and those in the "Greek" alphabet into the modern Greek alphabet. Letters of all three alphabets are represented in lower case. Vowels are regularly lengthened before ns and nct (in the latter of which

5720-574: The new Pontifex his own Master of the Horse some years later. Flaccus was known for his severity towards the disloyal citizens of Capua, of whom he had the senior men executed and the rest of the citizenry condemned to slavery for their disloyalty to Rome. According to Livy, the Capuans complained of his behavior to the Roman Senate, which, however, ruled that Flaccus was within his rights. Flaccus

5808-406: The north. When Anacletus created Roger the king of Sicily , he granted Roger the right to conscript the citizens of the city into military service, despite city itself remaining under Papal rule. The declaration was not well received, as the citizens became afraid that the city was about to be annexed into the newly found kingdom. Therefore, when Roger made his move against Robert of Capua and began

5896-443: The other by Aeclanum to Venusia (now Venosa ) and Tarentum (now Taranto ). Its wealth is also evidenced by the quantity of coins minted by Beneventum. Horace famously notes Beneventum on his journey from Rome to Brundusium (now Brindisi ). It was indebted to the same circumstance for the honor of repeated visits from the emperors of Rome, among which those of Nero, Trajan , and Septimus Severus, are particularly recorded. It

5984-526: The papacy peacefully when the emperor Henry III ceded it to Leo IX , in exchange for the pope's consent to the establishment of the Diocese of Bamberg (1053). Landulf II, Archbishop of Benevento , promoted reform, but also allied with the Normans. He was deposed for two years. Benevento was the cornerstone of the papacy's temporal powers in southern Italy. The papacy ruled it by appointed rectors, seated in

6072-441: The preceding vowel, or to a long rr (as in Latin), and at the end of a word, original rs becomes r just as in Latin. Unlike in Latin, the s is not dropped, either Oscan or Umbrian, from the consonant clusters sm , sn , sl : Umbrian `sesna "dinner," Oscan kersnu vs Latin cēna . Oscan nouns can have one of the seven cases: nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative , ablative and locative (the latter

6160-1475: The present stem): Ekkum svaí píd herieset trííbarak avúm tereí púd liímítúm pernúm púís herekleís fíísnú mefiú íst, ehtrad feíhúss pús herekleís fíísnam amfret, pert víam pússt íst paí íp íst, pústin slagím senateís suveís tanginúd tríbarakavúm líkítud. íním íúk tríbarakkiuf pam núvlanús tríbarakattuset íúk tríbarakkiuf íním úíttiuf abellanúm estud. avt púst feíhúís pús físnam amfret, eíseí tereí nep abellanús nep núvlanús pídum tríbarakattíns. avt thesavrúm púd eseí tereí íst, pún patensíns, múíníkad tanginúd patensíns, íním píd eíseí thesavreí púkkapíd eestit aíttíúm alttram alttrús herríns. avt anter slagím abellanam íním núvlanam súllad víú uruvú íst. pedú íst eísaí víaí mefiaí teremenniú staíet. In Latin : Item si quid volent aedificare in territorio quod limitibus tenus quibus Herculis fanum medium est, extra muros, qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, [per] viam positum est, quae ibi est, pro finibus senatus sui sententia, aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium quam Nolani aedificaverint, id aedificium et usus Abellanorum esto. At post muros qui fanum ambiunt, in eo territorio nec Avellani nec Nolani quidquam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qui in eo territorio est, cum paterent, communi sententia paterent, et quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque extat, portionum alteram alteri caperent. At inter fines Abellanos et Nolanos ubique via curva est, [pedes] est in ea via media termina stant. In English: And if anyone shall want to build on

6248-516: The railway communications between Rome and Apulia resulted in the town being heavily bombed by the Allied air forces in the summer of 1943. These raids caused 2,000 deaths and left 18,000 homeless out of a population of 40,000, and resulted in the destruction of half of the town. The railway and industrial districts were hit the hardest, but the old city centre also suffered heavily; the Cathedral

6336-467: The rivers Sabato and Calore, and the two main ancient roads Via Appia and Via Traiana. The site had been already used by the Samnites, who had constructed here a set of defensive terraces, and the Romans, with a thermal plant ( Castellum aquae ), whose remains can be still seen in the castle garden. The Benedictines had a monastery there. It received the current name in the Middle Ages, when it became

6424-486: The sake of the public welfare, (6) rather than out of favor or malice toward anyone; and that too in accordance with the judgment of the majority of the senate. The presiding magistrate whose assembly is prevented in this way shall not hold the assembly on this day. Notes: Oscan carn- “part, piece” is related to Latin carn- “meat” (seen in English ‘carnivore’), from an Indo-European root *ker- meaning ‘cut’―apparently

6512-1437: The sanctuary, in that territory neither the Abellans nor the Nolans may build anything. But the treasury that is in that territory, when it is opened it shall be opened following a shared decision, and whatever is in that treasury, they shall share equally amongst them. But the road that as between the borders of Abella and Nola is a communal road. The boundaries stand in the middle of this road. out of six paragraphs in total, lines 3-8 (the first couple lines are too damaged to be clearly legible): (3) … deiuast maimas carneis senateis tanginud am … (4) XL osiins, pon ioc egmo comparascuster. Suae pis pertemust, pruter pan … (5) deiuatud sipus comenei, perum dolum malum, siom ioc comono mais egmas touti- (6)cas amnud pan pieisum brateis auti cadeis amnud; inim idic siom dat senates (7) tanginud maimas carneis pertumum. Piei ex comono pertemest, izic eizeic zicelei (8) comono ni hipid. In Latin: (3) … iurabit maximae partis senatus sententia [dummodo non minus] (4) XL adsint, cum ea res consulta erit. Si quis peremerit, prius quam peremerit, (5) iurato sciens in committio sine dolo malo, se ea comitia magis rei publicae causa, (6) quam cuiuspiam gratiae aut inimicitiae causa; idque se de senatus (7) sententia maximae partis perimere. Cui sic comitia perimet (quisquam),

6600-510: The sculptures are in the British Museum . Successive emperors seem to have bestowed on the city accessions of territory, and erected, or at least given name to, various public buildings. For administrative purposes it was first included, together with the rest of the Hirpini, in the second region of Augustus, but was afterwards annexed to Campania and placed under the control of the consular of that province. Its inhabitants were included in

6688-1038: The seat of the Papal governors, the Rettori . The castle is in fact made by two distinct edifices: the Torrione ("Big Tower"), which was built by the Lombards starting from 871, and the Palazzo dei Governatori, built by the Popes from 1320. Frazioni , or wards, include: Acquafredda, Cancelleria, Capodimonte, Caprarella, Cardoncielli, Cardoni, Cellarulo, Chiumiento, Ciancelle, Ciofani, Cretazzo, Epitaffio, Francavilla, Gran Potenza, Imperatore, Lammia, Madonna della Salute, Masseria del Ponte, Masseria La Vipera, Mascambruni, Montecalvo, Olivola, Pacevecchia, Pamparuottolo, Pantano, Perrottiello, Piano Cappelle, Pino, Ponte Corvo, Rosetiello, Ripa Zecca, Roseto, Santa Clementina, San Chirico, San Cumano (anc. Nuceriola ), San Domenico, San Giovanni

6776-477: The territory of Caudium (now Montesarchio ). A third colony was settled there by Nero , at which time it assumed the title of Concordia ; hence we find it bearing, in inscriptions of the reign of Septimius Severus , the titles Colonia Julia Augusta Concordia Felix Beneventum . Its importance and flourishing condition under the Roman Empire is sufficiently attested by existing remains and inscriptions; it

6864-475: The west it included that of Caudium , with the exception of the town itself; to the north it extended as far as the river Tamarus (now Tammaro ), including the village of Pago Veiano , which, as we learn from an inscription, was anciently called Pagus Veianus ; on the northeast it comprised the town of Aequum Tuticum (now Saint Eleutherio hamlet , between Ariano Irpino and Castelfranco in Miscano ), and on

6952-511: The whole of Southern Italy. The greatest of them was Robert Guiscard , who captured Benevento in 1053 after the Emperor Henry III had first authorised its conquest in 1047 when Pandulf III and Landulf VI shut the gates to him. These princes were later expelled from the city and then recalled after the pope failed to defend it from Guiscard. The city fell to Normans in 1077. It was a papal city until after 1081. Benevento passed to

7040-678: Was almost completely destroyed, and its reconstruction was only completed in the 1960s. After being briefly occupied by the Germans in the wake of the Armistice of Cassibile , Benevento was liberated by the Allies on 2 October 1943. Four years after the war, on 2 October 1949, Benevento was hit hard by a flood of the Calore Irpino . During the 1950s Benevento was mainly ruled by Monarchist or MSI mayors, and then for three decades (until

7128-493: Was at that period unquestionably the chief city of the Hirpini, and probably, next to Capua, the most populous and considerable city of southern Italy. For this prosperity it was doubtless indebted in part to its position on the Via Appia, just at the junction of the two principal arms or branches of that great road, the one called afterwards the Via Traiana , leading thence by Aequum Tuticum (now Ariano Irpino ) into Apulia ;

7216-694: Was forbidden to travel without royal permission. With the collapse of the Lombard Kingdom in 773, Duke Arechis II was elevated to Prince under the new Frankish Empire , in compensation for having some of his territory transferred back to the Papal States . In November 774, the Duke of Benevento Duke Arechis II , immediately after being crowned prince, decided to send members of the Benevento Cortisani and Baccari families to occupy

7304-418: Was inscribed in Oscan (dating to before 300 BCE) at Teanum Apulum . Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii indicate its persistence in at least one urban environment well into the 1st century of the common era . In total, as of 2017, there were 800 found Oscan texts, with a rapid expansion in recent decades. Oscan was written in various scripts depending on time period and location, including

7392-581: Was probably for the same reason that the triumphal arch , the Arch of Trajan , was erected there by the senate and people of Rome and constructed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in 114. The Arch of Trajan is one of the best-preserved Roman structures in the Campania. It repeats the formula of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum , with reliefs of Trajan 's life and exploits of his reign. Some of

7480-514: Was stormed and taken by the Roman consul Quintus Fulvius Flaccus . And though its territory was more than once laid waste by the Carthaginians, it was still one of the eighteen Latin colonies which in 209 BCE were at once able and willing to furnish the required quota of men and money for continuing the war. No mention of it occurs during the Social War , although it seems to have escaped from

7568-500: Was the birthplace of Lucius Orbilius Pupillus , who long continued to teach in his native city before he removed to Rome, and was honored with a statue by his fellow-townsmen; while existing inscriptions record similar honors paid to another grammarian, Rutilius Aelianus , as well as to orators and poets, apparently only of local celebrity. The territory of Beneventum under the Roman Empire was of very considerable extent. Towards

7656-546: Was the grandfather of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus , consul in 125 BC, who was an ardent supporter of the Brothers Gracchi. He attempted to warn Tiberius Gracchus of the plots against his life on the day that he was killed; in 121 BC, having supported Gaius Gracchus in his reform program and tried to lead an armed resistance against the Senate, he and his elder son were tracked down and executed (beheaded) without trial on

7744-661: Was used to write Oscan in Campania and surrounding territories from the 5th century BCE until at least the 1st century CE. Oscan is known from inscriptions dating as far back as the 5th century BCE. The most important Oscan inscriptions are the Tabula Bantina , the Oscan Tablet or Tabula Osca, and the Cippus Abellanus . In Apulia , there is evidence that ancient currency

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