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75-564: Ziziphus mauritiana , also known as Indian jujube , Indian plum , Chinese date , Chinee apple , ber and dunks is a tropical fruit tree species belonging to the family Rhamnaceae . It is often confused with the closely related Chinese jujube ( Z. jujuba ), but whereas Z. jujuba prefers temperate climates, Z. mauritiana is tropical to subtropical. Ziziphus mauritiana is a spiny, evergreen shrub or small tree up to 15 m high, with trunk 40 cm or more in diameter; spreading crown; stipular spines and many drooping branches. The fruit

150-597: A witches'-broom disease caused by a mycoplasma -like organism was found in jujube plants near Poona University . It proved to be transmitted by grafting or budding diseased scions onto healthy Z. mauritiana seedlings. Leaf rust, caused by Phakopsora zizyphivulgaris , ranges from mild to severe on all commercial cultivars in the Punjab. In storage, the fruits may be spotted by fungi. Fruit rots are caused by Fusarium spp., Nigrospora oryzae , Epicoccum nigrum , and Glomerella cingulata . Tropical Due to

225-511: A break in rainfall during mid-season when the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon trough moves poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season; Typical vegetation in these areas ranges from moist seasonal tropical forests to savannahs . When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer , precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season

300-566: A height of about 1 metre. Wild-growing plants in northern Australia may take 8 years to reach this size. In Australia, plants growing under natural conditions are capable of producing seeds once they reach a height of about 1m. Plants between 1 and 2m high produce, on average, less than five fruits per season. Large plants (>5m high) can produce 5000 or more fruits in a single season. In India, some types ripen as early as October, others from mid-February to mid-March, others in March, or mid-March, to

375-458: A high tolerance to both water-logging and drought and can grow where annual rainfall ranges from 125 to 2,225 mm, but is more widespread in areas with an annual rainfall of 300 to 500 mm. In China and India, wild trees are found up to an elevation of 5,400 ft (1,650 m). In India, the minimum shade temperature for survival is 7–13° and the maximum temperature is 50 °C. Studies report that this species flourishes in alkaline soils with

450-428: A pH as high as 9.2. However, deep sandy loam to loamy soils with neutral or slightly alkaline pH are considered optimum for growth. In India, the tree grows best on sandy loam, neutral or slightly alkaline. Some cultivars attain anthesis early in the morning, others do so later in the day. The flowers are protandrous. Hence, fruit set depends on cross-pollination by insects attracted by the fragrance and nectar. Pollen of

525-431: A pleasant aroma. The ripe fruit is sweet and sour in taste. Both flesh texture and taste are reminiscent of apples. When under ripe the flesh is white and crispy, acid to subacid to sweet in taste. Fully ripe fruits are less crisp and somewhat mealy; overripe fruits are wrinkled, the flesh buff-coloured, soft, spongy and musky. At first the aroma is apple like and pleasant but it becomes peculiarly musky when overripe. There

600-540: A riverbank, taking valuable grasses and soils downstream, and later allowing the sun to bake the land dry. Riparian zones can be restored through relocation (of human-made products), rehabilitation, and time. Natural Sequence Farming techniques have been used in the Upper Hunter Valley of New South Wales , Australia, in an attempt to rapidly restore eroded farms to optimum productivity. The Natural Sequence Farming technique involves placing obstacles in

675-415: A role in lowering nitrate contamination in surface runoff, such as manure and other fertilizers from agricultural fields , that would otherwise damage ecosystems and human health. Particularly, the attenuation of nitrate or denitrification of the nitrates from fertilizer in this buffer zone is important. The use of wetland riparian zones shows a particularly high rate of removal of nitrate entering

750-427: A setback zone. "Riparian zones play a crucial role in preserving the vitality of streams and rivers, especially when faced with challenges stemming from catchment land use, including agricultural and urban development. These changes in land utilization can exert adverse impacts on the health of streams and rivers and, consequently, contribute to a decline in their reproductive rates." The protection of riparian zones

825-523: A social aspect, riparian zones contribute to nearby property values through amenity and views, and they improve enjoyment for footpaths and bikeways through supporting foreshoreway networks. Space is created for riparian sports such as fishing, swimming, and launching for vessels and paddle craft. The riparian zone acts as a sacrificial erosion buffer to absorb impacts of factors including climate change , increased runoff from urbanization , and increased boat wake without damaging structures located behind

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900-503: A stream and thus has a place in agricultural management. Also in terms of carbon transport from terrestrial ecosystems to aquatic ecosystems, riparian groundwater can play an important role. As such, a distinction can be made between parts of the riparian zone that connect large parts of the landscape to streams, and riparian areas with more local groundwater contributions.    - Riparian forests are primarily situated alongside rivers or streams, with varying degrees of proximity to

975-413: A tree 10 to 12 m tall with a trunk diameter of about 30 cm. Z. mauritiana may be erect or wide-spreading, with gracefully drooping thorny branches, zigzag branchlets, thornless or set with short, sharp straight or hooked spines. The leaves are of different size with ovate or elliptic shape with rounded apex, with 3 depressed longitudinal veins at the base. The size (length x width) of the leaves from

1050-412: Is 2.5 cm diameter, though in some cultivars the fruit size may reach up to 6.25 cm long and 4.5 cm wide. The form may be oval, obovate, round or oblong; the skin smooth or rough, glossy, thin but tough. The fruit ripen at different times even on a single tree. Fruits are first green, turning yellow as they ripen. The fully mature fruit is entirely red, soft, juicy with wrinkled skin and has

1125-411: Is a fast-growing tree with a medium lifespan, that can quickly reach up to 10–40 ft (3 to 12 m) tall. The naming of Ziziphus mauritiana by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , despite the species not being native to Mauritius , reflects a historical practice in taxonomy where newly described species were often associated with the nearest or most significant landmasses known at the time of discovery, rather than

1200-461: Is a mild laxative. The seeds are sedative and are taken, sometimes with buttermilk, to halt nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pains in pregnancy. They check diarrhea, and are poulticed on wounds. Mixed with oil, they are rubbed on rheumatic areas. The leaves are applied as poultices and are helpful in liver troubles, asthma and fever and, together with catechu, are administered when an astringent is needed, as on wounds. The bitter, astringent bark decoction

1275-584: Is a single, hard, oval or oblate, rough central stone which contains 2 elliptic, brown seeds, 1/4 in (6mm) long. Ziziphus mauritiana is a hardy tree that copes with extreme temperatures and thrives under rather dry conditions with an annual rainfall of 6 to 88.5 in (15–225 cm). In Fiji, sometimes naturalised Ber trees grow along roadsides and in agricultural land, usually near sea level but occasionally up to an elevation of about 600 m. It also grows well on laterite, medium black soils with good drainage, or sandy, gravelly, alluvial soil of dry river-beds where it

1350-500: Is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly due to the wet season supplementing flora, leading to crop yields late in the season. Floods and rains cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients are washed away and erosion increases. The incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for

1425-408: Is important to maintaining geomorphology . Riparian zones also act as important buffers against nutrient loss in the wake of natural disasters, such as hurricanes. Many of the characteristics of riparian zones that reduce the inputs of nitrogen from agricultural runoff also retain the necessary nitrogen in the ecosystem after hurricanes threaten to dilute and wash away critical nutrients. From

1500-507: Is more tropical, whereas Chinese jujube is a more cold hardy species. In India, there are 90 or more cultivars, varying in the habit of the tree; leaf shape; fruit form, size, color, flavor and keeping quality; and fruiting season. Among the important cultivars, eleven are described in the encyclopaedic Wealth of India : 'Banarasi (or Banarsi) Pewandi', 'Dandan', 'Kaithli' ('Patham'), 'Muria Mahrara', 'Narikelee', 'Nazuk', 'Sanauri 1', 'Sanauri 5', 'Thornless' and 'Umran' ('Umri'). The skin of most

1575-814: Is now widely naturalised throughout the Old World tropics from Southern Africa through the Middle East to the Indian subcontinent and China, Indomalaya, and into Australasia and the Pacific Islands. While the Rhamnaceae family are considered nitrogen fixing trees , Ziziphus mauritiana can form dense stands and become invasive in some areas, including Fiji and Australia, and has become a serious environmental weed in Northern Australia. It

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1650-471: Is of variable shape and size. It can be oval, obovate , oblong or round, and can be 1-2.5 in (2.5-6.25 cm) long, depending on the variety. The flesh is white and crisp. When slightly underipe, this fruit is a bit juicy and has a pleasant aroma. The fruit's skin is smooth, glossy, thin but tight. The species is believed to have originated in Indo-Malaysian region of South and South-East Asia. It

1725-459: Is often a consideration in logging operations. The undisturbed soil, soil cover, and vegetation provide shade, plant litter, and woody material and reduce the delivery of soil eroded from the harvested area. Factors such as soil types and root structures, climatic conditions, and vegetative cover determine the effectiveness of riparian buffering. Activities associated with logging, such as sediment input, introduction or removal of species, and

1800-563: Is quite nutritious and rich in vitamin C . It is second only to guava and much higher than citrus or apples. In India, the ripe fruits are mostly consumed raw, but are sometimes stewed. Slightly underripe fruits are candied by a process of pricking, immersing in a salt solution. Ripe fruits are preserved by sun-drying and a powder is prepared for out-of-season purposes. It contains 20 to 30% sugar, up to 2.5% protein and 12.8% carbohydrates. Fruits are also eaten in other forms, such as dried, candied, pickled, as juice, or as ber butter. In Ethiopia ,

1875-648: Is smooth and greenish-yellow to yellow. Propagation is most commonly from seed, where pretreatment is beneficial. Storage of the seed for 4 months to let it after-ripen improves germination. The hard stone restricts germination and cracking the shell or extraction of seeds hastens germination. Without pretreatment the seeds normally germinate within six weeks whereas extracted seeds only need one week to germinate. Seedlings to be used as rootstock can be raised from seed. Several studies indicate that germination can be improved by soaking seeds in sulfuric acid . Germination time can also be shortened to 7 days by carefully cracking

1950-469: Is taken to halt diarrhea and dysentery and relieve gingivitis. The bark paste is applied on sores. The root is purgative. A root decoction is given as a febrifuge, taenicide and emmenagogue, and the powdered root is dusted on wounds. Juice of the root bark is said to alleviate gout and rheumatism. Strong doses of the bark or root may be toxic. An infusion of the flowers serves as an eye lotion. The fatty-acid methyl ester of Z. mauritiana seed oil meets all of

2025-585: Is that the tropics represent a ' Garden of Eden ', a heaven on Earth, a land of rich biodiversity or a tropical paradise. The alternative is that the tropics consist of wild, unconquerable nature. The latter view was often discussed in old Western literature more so than the first. Evidence suggests over time that the view of the tropics as such in popular literature has been supplanted by more well-rounded and sophisticated interpretations. Western scholars tried to theorise why tropical areas were relatively more inhospitable to human civilisations than colder regions of

2100-399: Is the interface between land and a river or stream . In some regions, the terms riparian woodland , riparian forest , riparian buffer zone , riparian corridor , and riparian strip are used to characterize a riparian zone. The word riparian is derived from Latin ripa , meaning " river bank ". Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial biomes of

2175-472: Is vigorously spontaneous. In Australia, this species grows on a wide variety of soil types, including cracking clays, solodic soils and deep alluvials, in the tropics and sub-tropics where the average annual rainfall is in the range 470-1200mm. In the drier parts of this range, it grows best in riparian zones. Commercial cultivation usually extends up to 1000 m. Beyond this elevation trees do not perform well, and cultivation becomes less economical. The tree has

2250-605: The Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Perú . The climate is changing in the tropics, as it is in the rest of the world. The effects of steadily rising concentrations of greenhouse gases on the climate may be less obvious to tropical residents, however, because they are overlain by considerable natural variability. Much of this variability is driven by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) . The Tropics has warmed by 0.7–0.8 °C over

2325-1112: The Earth . Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic plants . Riparian zones are important in ecology , environmental resource management , and civil engineering because of their role in soil conservation , their habitat biodiversity , and the influence they have on terrestrial and semiaquatic fauna as well as aquatic ecosystems , including grasslands , woodlands , wetlands , and even non-vegetative areas. Riparian zones may be natural or engineered for soil stabilization or restoration . These zones are important natural biofilters , protecting aquatic environments from excessive sedimentation , polluted surface runoff , and erosion . They supply shelter and food for many aquatic animals and shade that limits stream temperature change. When riparian zones are damaged by construction , agriculture or silviculture , biological restoration can take place, usually by human intervention in erosion control and revegetation. If

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2400-732: The Pantropic . The system of biogeographic realms differs somewhat; the Neotropical realm includes both the Neotropics and temperate South America, and the Paleotropics correspond to the Afrotropical , Indomalayan , Oceanian , and tropical Australasian realms . Flora are plants found in a specific region at a specific time. Some well-known plants that are exclusively found in, originate from, or are often associated with

2475-579: The Waterberg Biosphere of South Africa , and eastern Madagascar rainforests. Often the soils of tropical forests are low in nutrient content, making them quite vulnerable to slash-and-burn deforestation techniques, which are sometimes an element of shifting cultivation agricultural systems. In biogeography , the tropics are divided into Paleotropics (Africa, Asia and Australia) and Neotropics (Caribbean, Central America, and South America). Together, they are sometimes referred to as

2550-719: The axial tilt of the Earth . The Tropic of Cancer is the Northernmost latitude from which the Sun can ever be seen directly overhead , and the Tropic of Capricorn is the Southernmost. This means that the tropical zone includes everywhere on Earth which is a subsolar point at least once during the solar year . Thus the maximum latitudes of the tropics have equal distances from the equator on either side. Likewise, they approximate

2625-401: The "cool roof" characteristics of the leaves. The flowers are tiny, yellow, 5-petalled and are usually in twos and threes in the leaf axils. Flowers are white or greenish white and the fruits are orange to brown, 2–3 cm long, with edible white pulp surrounding a 2-locular pyrene. This quick growing tree starts producing fruits within three years. The fruit is a soft, juicy, drupe that

2700-690: The Ibadan region of Oyo state. Ibadan, one of the oldest towns in Africa, covers a total area of 3,080 square kilometers and is characterized by a network of perennial water streams that create these valuable riparian zones. In the research conducted by Adeoye et al. (2012) on land use changes in Southwestern Nigeria, it was observed that 46.18 square kilometers of the area are occupied by water bodies. Additionally, most streams and rivers in this region are accompanied by riparian forests. Nevertheless,

2775-410: The Indian jujube is thick and heavy. It is not airborne but is transferred from flower to flower by honeybees. The flowers are pollinated by ants and other insects, and in the wild state the trees do not set fruits by self-pollination. Best propagates by seeds, seedlings, direct sowing, root suckers as well as by cuttings. Ber seeds are spread by birds, native animals, stock, feral pigs and humans who eat

2850-550: The Northern Hemisphere. A popular explanation focused on the differences in climate. Tropical jungles and rainforests have much more humid and hotter weather than colder and drier temperaments of the Northern Hemisphere, giving to a more diverse biosphere. This theme led some scholars to suggest that humid hot climates correlate to human populations lacking control over nature e.g. 'the wild Amazonian rainforests'. Riparian A riparian zone or riparian area

2925-399: The angle of the Earth's axial tilt. This angle is not perfectly fixed, mainly due to the influence of the moon, but the limits of the tropics are a geographic convention, and their variance from the true latitudes is very small. Many tropical areas have both a dry and a wet season. The wet season , rainy season or green season is the time of year, ranging from one or more months when most of

3000-615: The area adjacent to a watercourse has standing water or saturated soil for as long as a season, it is normally termed a wetland because of its hydric soil characteristics. Because of their prominent role in supporting a diversity of species , riparian zones are often the subject of national protection in a biodiversity action plan . These are also known as a "plant or vegetation waste buffer". Research shows that riparian zones are instrumental in water quality improvement for both surface runoff and water flowing into streams through subsurface or groundwater flow. Riparian zones can play

3075-470: The arid and semi arid regions of India. From 1984 to 1995 with improved cultivars the production was 0.9 million tonnes on a land of 88,000 ha. The crop is also grown in Pakistan , Bangladesh and parts of Africa . Trees in northern India yield 80 to 200 kg of fresh fruit/tree/year when the trees are in their prime bearing age of 10–20 years. The fruit is eaten raw, pickled or used in beverages. It

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3150-459: The average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics , some even in temperate regions. Under the Köppen climate classification , for tropical climates , a wet-season month is defined as one or more months where average precipitation is 60 mm (2.4 in) or more. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons see

3225-415: The connection to Mauritius could have been due to trade routes or the movement of plant specimens through the region, as Mauritius was an important colonial hub during the 18th century. Ziziphus mauritiana is a medium-sized tree that grows vigorously and has a rapidly developing taproot, a necessary adaptation to drought conditions. The species varies widely in height, from a bushy shrub 1.5 to 2 m tall, to

3300-537: The end of April. In the Assiut Governorate, there are 2 crops a year, the main in early spring, the second in the fall. In India the trees flower in July to October and fruits are formed soon after. In February–March the fruits are mature and in some places a second crop is produced in the fall. Pickings are done by hand from ladders and about 110 lbs (50 kg)is harvested per day. The fruits remaining on

3375-532: The endocarp. Ber seedlings do not tolerate transplanting, therefore the best alternatives are to sow the seeds directly in the field or to use polythene tubes placed in the nursery bed. Seedlings are ready for budding in 3 to 4 months. In addition, seedlings from the wild cultivars can be converted into improved cultivars by top-working and grafting. Nurseries are used for large scale seedling multiplication and graft production. The seedlings should also be given full light. The seedlings may need as long as 15 months in

3450-503: The exact location where the species was found. Lamarck described Ziziphus mauritiana in 1789 during a period when European exploration was expanding rapidly across the globe, and many plants and animals were being documented by botanists. The name “mauritiana” likely references the island of Mauritius, a prominent stopover for explorers and botanists in the Indian Ocean. Although the species is native to South Asia, particularly India,

3525-796: The extraction of water for irrigation purposes have led to diminished water flows and changes in the riparian environment. Herbaceous Perennial : Herbaceous Perennial : In western North America and the Pacific coast, the riparian vegetation includes: Riparian trees Riparian shrubs Other plants In Asia there are different types of riparian vegetation, but the interactions between hydrology and ecology are similar as occurs in other geographic areas. Typical riparian vegetation in temperate New South Wales, Australia include: Typical riparian zone trees in Central Europe include: Land clearing followed by floods can quickly erode

3600-468: The fish that live within rivers, such as brook and charr. Impacts on riparian zones can affect fish, and restoration is not always sufficient to recover fish populations. They provide native landscape irrigation by extending seasonal or perennial flows of water. Nutrients from terrestrial vegetation (e.g. plant litter and insect drop) are transferred to aquatic food webs, and are a vital source of energy in aquatic food webs. The vegetation surrounding

3675-597: The flow of water, which reduces soil erosion and flood damage. Sediment is trapped, reducing suspended solids to create less turbid water, replenish soils, and build stream banks. Pollutants are filtered from surface runoff, enhancing water quality via biofiltration. The riparian zones also provide wildlife habitat , increased biodiversity, and wildlife corridors , enabling aquatic and riparian organisms to move along river systems avoiding isolated communities. Riparian vegetation can also provide forage for wildlife and livestock. Riparian zones are also important for

3750-506: The foliage. Mites form scale-like galls on twigs, retarding growth and reducing the fruit crop. Lesser pests include the small caterpillar of Meridarchis scyrodes , that bores into the fruit. The tree is subject to shrouding by a parasitic vine. Powdery mildew causes defoliation and fruit-drop, but it can be adequately controlled. Lesser diseases are sooty mould, brown rot and leaf-spot. Leafspot results from infestation by Cercospora spp. and Isariopsis indica var. zizyphi . In 1973,

3825-444: The fruit and expel the seeds. Seeds may remain viable for 2½ years but the rate of germination declines with age. Cross-incompatibility occurs, and cultivars have to be matched for good fruit set; some cultivars produce good crops parthenocarpically. Ziziphus mauritiana is one of the two Ziziphus species that have considerable horticulture importance, the other being Chinese jujube ( Z. jujuba ). Indian jujube ( Z. mauritiana )

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3900-558: The fruits are used to stupefy fish. The leaves are readily eaten by camels, cattle and goats and are considered nutritious. In India and Queensland , the flowers are rated as a minor source of nectar for honeybees. The honey is light and of fair flavor. Ber timber is hard, strong, fine-grained, fine-textured, tough, durable, and reddish in colour. It has been used to line wells, to make legs for bedsteads, boat ribs, agricultural implements, tool handles, and other lathe-turned items. The branches are used as framework in house construction and

3975-460: The geographic region; these usages ought not be confused. The Earth's axial tilt is currently around 23.4° , and therefore so are the latitudes of the tropical circles , marking the boundary of the tropics: specifically, ±23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°). The northern one is called the Tropic of Cancer , and the southern is the Tropic of Capricorn . As the Earth's axial tilt changes, so too do

4050-464: The input of polluted water all degrade riparian zones. The assortment of riparian zone trees varies from those of wetlands and typically consists of plants that are either emergent aquatic plants, or herbs , trees and shrubs that thrive in proximity to water. In South Africa's fynbos biome, Riparian ecosystem are heavily invaded by alien woody plants . Riparian plant communities along lowland streams exhibit remarkable species diversity, driven by

4125-519: The land from drying. The weeds will improve the streambeds so that trees and grasses can return, and later ideally replace the weeds. There are several other techniques used by government and non-government agencies to address riparian and streambed degradation, ranging from the installation of bed control structures such as log sills to the use of pin groynes or rock emplacement. Other possible approaches include control of invasive species, monitoring of herbivore activity, and cessation of human activity in

4200-423: The largest, sweetest fruits. 100% of those may be attacked, while on a neighbouring tree bearing a smaller, less-sweet type, only 2% of the crop may be damaged. The larvae pupate in the soil and it has been found that treatment of the ground beneath the tree helps reduce the problem. Control is possible with regular and effective spraying of insecticide. A leaf-eating caterpillar and the green slug caterpillar attack

4275-961: The last century—only slightly less than the global average—but a strong El Niño made 1998 the warmest year in most areas, with no significant warming since. Climate models predict a further 1–2 °C warming by 2050 and 1–4 °C by 2100. Tropical plants and animals are those species native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of tropical rainforests , seasonal tropical forests , dry (often deciduous) forests , spiny forests, deserts , savannahs, grasslands and other habitat types. There are often wide areas of biodiversity , and species endemism present, particularly in rainforests and seasonal forests. Some examples of important biodiversity and high-endemism ecosystems are El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico , Costa Rican and Nicaraguan rainforests, Amazon Rainforest territories of several South American countries, Madagascar dry deciduous forests ,

4350-466: The major biodiesel requirements in the USA (ASTM D 6751-02, ASTM PS 121-99), Germany (DIN V 51606) and European Union (EN 14214). The average oil yield is 4.95 kg oil/tree or 1371 kg oil/hectare, and arid or semi-arid regions may be utilised due to its drought resistance. The greatest enemies of the jujube are fruit flies. Some cultivars are much more susceptible than others, the flies preferring

4425-580: The nursery before planting in the field. Scientists in India have standardised propagation techniques for Ber establishment. Budding is the easiest method of vegetative propagation used for improved cultivars . Different types of budding techniques have been utilised with ring-budding and shield-budding being the most successful. Wild varieties of ber are usually used as the root-stock. The most common being Z. rotundifolia in India and Z. spina-christi in Africa. Plants are capable of seed production once they reach

4500-719: The overhead sun, the tropics receive the most solar energy over the course of the year, and consequently have the highest temperatures on the planet. Even when not directly overhead, the sun is still close to overhead throughout the year, therefore the tropics also have the lowest seasonal variation on the planet; "winter" and "summer" lose their contrast. Instead, seasons are more commonly divided by precipitation variations than by temperature variations. The tropics maintain wide diversity of local climates, such as rain forests , monsoons , savannahs , deserts , and high altitude snow-capped mountains . The word "tropical" can specifically refer to certain kinds of weather , rather than to

4575-571: The presence of water bodies.    - The vegetation in riparian forests exhibits a multi-layered structure.    - Moisture-dependent trees are the dominant feature, giving these forests a unique appearance, especially in savanna regions.    - These moisture-dependent trees define the landscape, accompanied by a variety of mesic understorey , shrub, and ground cover species.    - Riparian forests often host plant species that have high moisture requirements.    - The flora typically includes species native to

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4650-448: The region, adapted to the moist conditions provided by proximity to water bodies. In summary, riparian forests are characterized by their location along waterways, their intricate interplay with water and soil dynamics, a diverse array of vegetation layers, and a plant composition favoring moisture-dependent species. Riparian zones dissipate stream energy. The meandering curves of a river, combined with vegetation and root systems, slow

4725-496: The riparian forests may face further depletion, potentially leading to their complete disappearance by the year 2040. Riparian zones can also be found in Cape Agulhas region of South Africa. Riparian areas along South African rivers have experienced significant deterioration as a result of human activities. Similar to many other developed and developing areas worldwide, the extensive building of dams in upstream river areas and

4800-453: The stream helps to shade the water, mitigating water temperature changes . Thinning of riparian zones has been observed to cause increased maximum temperatures, higher fluctuations in temperature, and elevated temperatures being observed more frequently and for longer periods of time. Extreme changes in water temperature can have lethal effects on fish and other organisms in the area. The vegetation also contributes wood debris to streams, which

4875-472: The study also identified a consistent reduction in the extent of these riparian forests over time, primarily attributed to a significant deforestation rate. In Nigeria, according to Momodu et al. (2011), there has been a notable decline of about 50% in the riparian forest coverage within the period of 1978 to 2000. This reduction is primarily attributed to alterations in land use and land cover. Additionally, their research indicates that if current trends continue,

4950-470: The tender to senescent states ranges, ~4.7 cm x 2.5 cm - 9.6 cm x 7.3 cm. The upper side (adaxial) of the leaves displays a deep green hue with an oily surface, while the lower side (abaxial) covered with micro-fibers surface. The fiber diameter of matted abaxial leaf surface ranges, ~5.6 to 7.1 micrometers. Recently, Mahesh Chandra Dubey, reported that the micro-fibrous surface morphology of the abaxial leaf surface exhibits superhydrophobicity and contributes to

5025-519: The tree are shaken down. Only fully mature fruits are picked directly from the tree. They are transported in open bags to avoid fermentation. Seedling trees bear 5,000 to 10,000 small fruits per year in India. Superior grafted trees may yield as many as 30,000 fruits. The best cultivar in India, with fruits normally averaging 30 to the lb (66 to the kg), yields 175 lbs (77 kg) annually. Special cultural treatment increases both fruit size and yield. The major production regions for Indian jujube are

5100-516: The tropical and polar circles . The tropics constitute 39.8% of Earth's surface area and contain 36% of Earth's landmass . As of 2014 , the region was home also to 40% of the world's population , and this figure was then projected to reach 50% by 2050. Because of global warming , the weather conditions of the tropics are expanding with areas in the subtropics , having more extreme weather events such as heatwaves and more intense storms. These changes in weather conditions may make certain parts of

5175-469: The tropics include: Tropicality refers to the image of the tropics that people from outside the tropics have of the region, ranging from critical to verging on fetishism. Tropicality gained renewed interest in geographical discourse when French geographer Pierre Gourou published Les pays tropicaux ( The Tropical World in English), in the late 1940s. Tropicality encompassed two major images. One,

5250-568: The tropics uninhabitable. The word "tropic" comes via Latin from Ancient Greek τροπή ( tropē ), meaning "to turn" or "change direction". The tropics are defined as the region between the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at 23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°) N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at 23°26′09.8″ (or 23.43605°) S; these latitudes correspond to

5325-477: The unique environmental gradients inherent to these ecosystems. Riparian forest can be found in Benin, West Africa. In Benin, where the savanna ecosystem prevails, "riparian forests" include various types of woodlands, such as semi-deciduous forests, dry forests, open forests, and woodland savannas . These woodlands can be found alongside rivers and streams. In Nigeria, you can also discover riparian zones within

5400-484: The water's edge.    - These ecosystems are intimately connected with dynamic water flow and soil processes, influencing their characteristics.    - Riparian forests feature a diverse combination of elements, including:    - Mesic terrestrial vegetation (vegetation adapted to moist conditions).    - Dependent animal life, relying on the riparian environment for habitat and resources.    - Local microclimate influenced by

5475-415: The water's pathway to lessen the energy of a flood, and help the water to deposit soil and seep into the flood zone. Another technique is to quickly establish ecological succession by encouraging fast-growing plants such as "weeds" ( pioneer species ) to grow. These may spread along the watercourse and cause environmental degradation , but may stabilize the soil, place carbon into the ground, and protect

5550-726: The wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. However, regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the geographical tropics is classed not as "tropical" but as "dry" ( arid or semi-arid ), including the Sahara Desert , the Atacama Desert and Australian Outback . Also, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea , Mount Kilimanjaro , Puncak Jaya and

5625-518: The wood makes good charcoal with a heat content of almost 4,900 kcal per kg. In addition, this species is used as firewood in many areas. In tropical Africa, the flexible branches are wrapped as retaining bands around conical thatched roofs of huts, and are twined together to form thorny corral walls to retain livestock. The fruits are applied on cuts and ulcers; are employed in pulmonary ailments and fevers; and, mixed with salt and chili peppers, are given in indigestion and biliousness. The dried ripe fruit

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