Misplaced Pages

#342657

97-699: The new legal system in Berber tribes would be ostensibly based on local and centuries-old Berber laws that had inherited and evolved throughout the millennia of the Islamic conquest of North Africa , rather than the Islamic Sharia . According to pan-Arabist activists, the French colonial authorities sought to facilitate their takeover of the Berber tribes' property and to maintain a legal cover. The Berber Dahir

194-732: A client state of the Roman empire in 33 BC, after the death of king Bocchus II , then a full Roman province in AD 40, after the death of its last king, Ptolemy of Mauretania , a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty . According to historians of the Middle Ages, the Berbers were divided into two branches, Butr and Baranis (known also as Botr and Barnès), descended from Mazigh ancestors, who were themselves divided into tribes and subtribes. Each region of

291-489: A desire to quickly end conflict in a profitable client kingdom, sought to settle the quarrel by dividing Numidia into two parts. Jugurtha was assigned the western half. However, soon after, conflict broke out again, leading to the Jugurthine War between Rome and Numidia. In antiquity, Mauretania (3rd century BC – 44 BC) was an ancient Mauri Berber kingdom in modern Morocco and part of Algeria. It became

388-525: A haven for pirates in the 17th century as an independent republic before being incorporated into Alawi Morocco. It recorded a population of 890,403 in the 2014 Moroccan census . The city still preserves its historic medina (old town), with many major monuments dating from the Marinid period (13th–15th centuries). Salé is connected to Rabat by a tramway and also contains the Rabat–Salé Airport ,

485-577: A more recent intrusion being associated with the Neolithic Revolution . The proto-Berber tribes evolved from these prehistoric communities during the late Bronze - and early Iron ages. Uniparental DNA analysis has established ties between Berbers and other Afroasiatic speakers in Africa. Most of these populations belong to the E1b1b paternal haplogroup, with Berber speakers having among

582-553: A period, the Berbers were in constant revolt, and in 396 there was a great uprising. Thousands of rebels streamed down from the mountains and invaded Punic territory, carrying the serfs of the countryside along with them. The Carthaginians were obliged to withdraw within their walls and were besieged. Yet the Berbers lacked cohesion; and although 200,000 strong at one point, they succumbed to hunger, their leaders were offered bribes, and "they gradually broke up and returned to their homes". Thereafter, "a series of revolts took place among

679-480: A point of view fundamentally foreign to the Berbers. A population of mixed ancestry, Berber and Punic, evolved there, and there would develop recognized niches in which Berbers had proven their utility. For example, the Punic state began to field Berber–Numidian cavalry under their commanders on a regular basis. The Berbers eventually were required to provide soldiers (at first "unlikely" paid "except in booty"), which by

776-633: A source of propaganda. The Sultan reiterated his commitment to the Berber tribes and, in an attempt to combat the Ya Latif , offered an Islamic judge to any Berber tribes that wished to submit to Islamic law. The statement was not enough to stop on August 28, 1930, 100 nationalists from gathering in Ahmed bin Haj Mohamed Lahrech's house in Salé, where Mufti Boubker Zniber wrote the "Petition Against

873-601: Is Bab el-Mrisa ('Gate of the Little Port'), a monumental gate on the southeast side of the city, dating to the 1270s. The religious center of the city is the Great Mosque , located in the western half of the medina. Next to the mosque is the Madrasa of Abu al-Hasan , a madrasa building dating to 1342, which is one of the architectural highlights of the city. A number of tombs and zawiyas are also located in

970-487: Is a stone-carved entrance portal. Another landmark outside the city walls is the 14th-century aqueduct built by the Marinid sultan Abu al-Hasan to improve the city's water supply. A preserved section roughly 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) long can be found to the north of the medina, at one point straddling the modern road that leads north to Kenitra. In December 2017, AS Salé became Africa's basketball club Champion. It

1067-1010: Is divided administratively into the following: Salé has a Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) with warm to hot dry summers and mild damp winters. Located along the Atlantic Ocean, Salé has a mild, temperate climate, shifting from cool in winter to warm days in the summer months. The nights are always cool (or cold in winter, it can reach Sub 0 °C (32 °F) sometimes), with daytime temperatures generally rising about 7 to 8 °C (45 to 46 °F). The winter highs typically reach only 17.2 °C (63.0 °F) in December–February. Summer daytime highs usually hover around 25 °C (77.0 °F), but may occasionally exceed 30 °C (86.0 °F), especially during heat waves. Summer nights are usually pleasant and cool, ranging between 11 °C (51.8 °F) and 19 °C (66.2 °F) and rarely exceeding 20 °C (68.0 °F). Rabat belongs to

SECTION 10

#1732773019343

1164-406: Is operated by Transdev . As of February 2022, the network had two lines with a total length of 26.9 km (17 miles) and 43 stations. In 2023, an extension of the network was being planned and is due to be completed by 2028. Water supply and wastewater collection in Salé was irregular, with poorer and illegal housing units suffering the highest costs and most acute scarcities. Much of

1261-610: Is sometimes also used in English. While Berber is more widely known among English-speakers, its usage is a subject of debate, due to its historical background as an exonym and present equivalence with the Arabic word for " barbarian ". Historically, Berbers did not refer to themselves as Berbers/Amazigh but had their own terms to refer to themselves. For example, the Kabyles use the term "Leqbayel" to refer to their own people, while

1358-602: Is the Funduq Askour , the former maristan (hospital). It was originally built by the Marinid sultan Abu Inan towards 1350. All that remains of the original building today is a highly-decorated entrance portal. A short distance east of the city walls is the Zawiya al-Nussak , originally built in 1356 by Abu Inan, most likely as a lodge for Sufis . By the 20th century it had fallen into ruin but it has recently been restored. Its most significant and well-preserved feature

1455-483: Is the main inter-city station, from which trains run south to Rabat , Casablanca , Marrakech and El Jadida , north to Tanger , or east to Meknes , Fes , Taza and Oujda . The Rabat–Salé tramway was the first tramway network in Morocco and it connects Salé with Rabat across the river. It was opened on 11 May 2011 after a construction cost of 3.6 billion MAD . The network was constructed by Alstom Citadis and

1552-604: The Afroasiatic language family . They are indigenous to the Maghreb region of North Africa, where they live in scattered communities across parts of Morocco , Algeria , Libya , and to a lesser extent Tunisia , Mauritania , northern Mali and northern Niger . Smaller Berber communities are also found in Burkina Faso and Egypt 's Siwa Oasis . Descended from Stone Age tribes of North Africa, accounts of

1649-512: The Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries CE. This started a process of cultural and linguistic assimilation known as Arabization , which influenced the Berber population. Arabization involved the spread of Arabic language and Arab culture among the Berbers, leading to the adoption of Arabic as the primary language and conversion to Islam . Notably, the Arab migrations to the Maghreb from

1746-889: The Byzantines , the Vandals and the Ottoman Turks . Even after the Arab conquest of North Africa , the Kabyle people still maintained possession of their mountains. According to the Roman historian Gaius Sallustius Crispus , the original people of North Africa are the Gaetulians and the Libyans, they were the prehistoric peoples that crossed to Africa from Iberia , then much later, Hercules and his army crossed from Iberia to North Africa where his army intermarried with

1843-575: The Donatist doctrine and being a Berber, ascribed to the doctrine matching their culture, as well as their being alienated from the dominant Roman culture of the Catholic church), some perhaps Jewish , and some adhered to their traditional polytheist religion . The Roman-era authors Apuleius and St. Augustine were born in Numidia, as were three popes , one of whom, Pope Victor I , served during

1940-528: The Holocene . In 2013, Iberomaurusian skeletons from the prehistoric sites of Taforalt and Afalou in the Maghreb were also analyzed for ancient DNA . All of the specimens belonged to maternal clades associated with either North Africa or the northern and southern Mediterranean littoral , indicating gene flow between these areas since the Epipaleolithic . The ancient Taforalt individuals carried

2037-403: The Madrasa of Abu al-Hasan , the Zawiya al-Nussak , and a maristan (hospital for the mentally ill ). In the 14th century, Ibn 'Ashir (d. 1362 or 1363), a Sufi mystic from al-Andalus, moved to Salé and attracted other Sufis to him, including Ibn Abbad al-Rundi . Ibn Ashir later became the patron saint of the city and his mausoleum dominates the large seaside cemetery of the medina. In

SECTION 20

#1732773019343

2134-559: The Maghreb region of North Africa are collectively known as Berbers or Amazigh in English. Tribal titles such as Barabara and Beraberata appear in Egyptian inscriptions of 1700 and 1300 B.C, and the Berbers were probably intimately related with the Egyptians in very early times. Thus the true ethnical name may have become confused with Barbari , the designation naturally used by classical conquerors. The plural form Imazighen

2231-589: The Roman era . Byzantine authors mention the Mazikes (Amazigh) as tribal people raiding the monasteries of Cyrenaica . Garamantia was a notable Berber kingdom that flourished in the Fezzan area of modern-day Libya in the Sahara desert between 400 BC and 600 AD. Roman-era Cyrenaica became a center of early Christianity . Some pre-Islamic Berbers were Christians (there is a strong correlation between adherence to

2328-500: The Ya Latif read "For our Berber brothers who are deprived of Muslim law and who can no longer live under the law and customs of their ancestors." The goal of the nationalist movement's response to the Berber Dahir was to incite unrest against the French. The Berbers had traditionally been semi-independent and followed their own set of laws and customs. However, the nationalist movement saw this dahir as an attempt to Christianise

2425-578: The Zayyanids , and the Hafsids – continued to rule until the 16th century. From the 16th century onward, the process continued in the absence of Berber dynasties; in Morocco, they were replaced by Arabs claiming descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad . Berbers are divided into several diverse ethnic groups and Berber languages, such as Kabyles , Chaouis and Rifians . Historically, Berbers across

2522-403: The early Berbers . Hence, the interactions between Berbers and Phoenicians were often asymmetrical. The Phoenicians worked to keep their cultural cohesion and ethnic solidarity, and continuously refreshed their close connection with Tyre , the mother city. The earliest Phoenician coastal outposts were probably meant merely to resupply and service ships bound for the lucrative metals trade with

2619-486: The 14th century. Sal%C3%A9 Salé ( Arabic : سلا , romanized :  salā , [salaː] ) is a city in northwestern Morocco , on the right bank of the Bou Regreg river, opposite the national capital Rabat , for which it serves as a commuter town . Along with some smaller nearby towns, Rabat and Salé form together a single metropolitan area . Founded in the 11th century, it later became

2716-467: The 17th century, Salé became a haven for Barbary pirates , among them the Moriscos expelled from Spain turned corsairs, who formed an independent Republic of Salé . Salé pirates (the well-known " Salé Rovers ") enslaved civilians from European coasts; capturing, for, example, 1,000 English villagers in 1625, selling them later in Africa. They sold their crews and sometimes passengers into slavery in

2813-494: The 5th century BC, Carthage expanded its territory, acquiring Cape Bon and the fertile Wadi Majardah , later establishing control over productive farmlands for several hundred kilometres. Appropriation of such wealth in land by the Phoenicians would surely provoke some resistance from the Berbers; although in warfare, too, the technical training, social organization, and weaponry of the Phoenicians would seem to work against

2910-568: The 7th century to the 17th century accelerated this process. Berber tribes remained powerful political forces and founded new ruling dynasties in the 10th and 11th centuries, such as the Zirids , Hammadids , various Zenata principalities in the western Maghreb, and several Taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus , and empires of the Almoravids and Almohads . Their Berber successors – the Marinids ,

3007-676: The Arabic world. Despite the legendary reputation of the Salé corsairs, their ships were based across the river in Rabat, called "New Salé" by the English. European powers took action to try to eliminate the threat from the Barbary Coast. On 20 July 1629, the city of Salé was bombarded by French Admiral Isaac de Razilly with a fleet composed of the ships Licorne , Saint-Louis , Griffon , Catherine , Hambourg , Sainte-Anne , Saint-Jean ; his forces destroyed three corsair ships. During

Berber Dahir - Misplaced Pages Continue

3104-416: The Berber Dahir", to be sent to Grand Vizier Muhammad al-Muqri by a delegation from Salé. Moroccan activists mobilised to alert the international and Arab press, and Arslan made a brief stop in Morocco to inform and educate the nationalists. In 1934, another Dahir was issued, "Dahir regulating the functioning of justice in the tribes of Berber customs". [6] This ministerial decree of April 8, 1934, returned

3201-747: The Berber language and traditions best have been, in general, Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. Much of Berber culture is still celebrated among the cultural elite in Morocco and Algeria, especially in the Kabylia , the Aurès and the Atlas Mountains . The Kabyles were one of the few peoples in North Africa who remained independent during successive rule by the Carthaginians , the Romans ,

3298-454: The Berber peoples also formed quasi-independent satellite societies along the steppes of the frontier and beyond, where a minority continued as free 'tribal republics'. While benefiting from Punic material culture and political-military institutions, these peripheral Berbers (also called Libyans)—while maintaining their own identity, culture, and traditions—continued to develop their own agricultural skills and village societies, while living with

3395-501: The Berbers continued throughout the life of Carthage. The unequal development of material culture and social organization perhaps fated the relationship to be an uneasy one. A long-term cause of Punic instability, there was no melding of the peoples. It remained a source of stress and a point of weakness for Carthage. Yet there were degrees of convergence on several particulars, discoveries of mutual advantage, occasions of friendship, and family. The Berbers gain historicity gradually during

3492-557: The Berbers who advanced their interests following the Roman victory. Carthage was faulted by her ancient rivals for the "harsh treatment of her subjects" as well as for "greed and cruelty". Her Libyan Berber sharecroppers, for example, were required to pay half of their crops as tribute to the city-state during the emergency of the First Punic War . The normal exaction taken by Carthage was likely "an extremely burdensome" one-quarter. Carthage once famously attempted to reduce

3589-551: The Berbers<; criminal courts to their own control and effectively undid Article 6 of the Berber Dahir. Peaceful demonstrations spread in some parts of the country through the appeal to the "Ya Latif" and were relayed by the Petition of August 28, 1930. They constituted the first organized nationalist backlash against the occupation and led to the withdrawal of France's Berber Dahir. The important historical episode strengthened

3686-535: The Berbers, which was unacceptable in the largely-Islamic nation of Morocco. The Resident-General needed to quickly suppress resistance to the dahir. He exerted pressure on Sultan Muhammad V , who issued a statement on August 11, 1930. That coincided with the celebrations of the prophet's birthday, and the Sultan's statement was read in all the mosques of the country. The Sultan denounced the nationalist movement's tactics in no uncertain terms such as its use of mosques as

3783-508: The Berbers. Nonetheless, a modern criticism is that the Carthaginians "did themselves a disservice" by failing to promote the common, shared quality of "life in a properly organized city" that inspires loyalty, particularly with regard to the Berbers. Again, the tribute demanded by Carthage was onerous. [T]he most ruinous tribute was imposed and exacted with unsparing rigour from the subject native states, and no slight one either from

3880-545: The Chaouis identified themselves as "Ishawiyen" instead of Berber/Amazigh. Stéphane Gsell proposed the translation "noble/free" for the term Amazigh based on Leo Africanus 's translation of "awal amazigh" as "noble language" referring to Berber languages , this definition remains disputed and is largely seen as an undue extrapolation. The term Amazigh also has a cognate in the Tuareg "Amajegh", meaning noble. "Mazigh"

3977-603: The Dahir, or legislative text, which gave it the force of law. The net results were that some Berber tribes were separated from the Sharia and made many Berber courts subject to French jurisdiction . The Dahir of May 16, 1930, performed a similar function to that of the order of September 11, 1914. There were certain clarifications under this new dahir that met with some resistance. In particular, Article 6 clarified that criminal trials were subject to French courts. Before arriving at

Berber Dahir - Misplaced Pages Continue

4074-585: The French policy in Morocco under the governance of the Resident-General Hubert Lyautey , who signed the Dahir of September 11, 1914. [4] The fundamental characteristic of the policy consisted in preserving the traditional autonomy of Berbers, primarily in the legal field, by disassociating them from the Islamic legislation or "Chrâa" and by maintaining their common law , or "Azref". [5] The Resident General had Sultan Yusef sign

4171-522: The French-engineered "Berber Decree" was a means to turn the table against the French occupation of Morocco. The widespread storm that was created by the "Berber Dahir" controversy created a somewhat popular Moroccan nationalist elite based in Salé and Fez ; it had strong anti-Berber, anti-West, anti-secular, and pro Arab-Islamic inclinations. This period helped develop the political awareness and activism that would lead fourteen years later to

4268-862: The Iberians, and perhaps at first regarded trade with the Berbers as unprofitable. However, the Phoenicians eventually established strategic colonial cities in many Berber areas, including sites outside of present-day Tunisia, such as the settlements at Oea , Leptis Magna , Sabratha (in Libya), Volubilis , Chellah , and Mogador (now in Morocco). As in Tunisia, these centres were trading hubs, and later offered support for resource development, such as processing olive oil at Volubilis and Tyrian purple dye at Mogador. For their part, most Berbers maintained their independence as farmers or semi-pastorals, although, due to

4365-750: The Imazighen were first mentioned in Ancient Egyptian writings . From about 2000 BCE, Berber languages spread westward from the Nile Valley across the northern Sahara into the Maghreb. A series of Berber peoples such as the Mauri , Masaesyli , Massyli , Musulamii , Gaetuli , and Garamantes gave rise to Berber kingdoms, such as Numidia and Mauretania . Other kingdoms appeared in late antiquity, such as Altava , Aurès , Ouarsenis , and Hodna . Berber kingdoms were eventually suppressed by

4462-433: The Libyans [Berbers] from the fourth century onwards". The Berbers had become involuntary 'hosts' to the settlers from the east, and were obliged to accept the dominance of Carthage for centuries. Nonetheless, therein they persisted largely unassimilated, as a separate, submerged entity, as a culture of mostly passive urban and rural poor within the civil structures created by Punic rule. In addition, and most importantly,

4559-530: The Maghreb contained several fully independent tribes (e.g., Sanhaja , Houaras, Zenata , Masmuda , Kutama , Awraba, Barghawata , etc.). The Mauro-Roman Kingdom was an independent Christian Berber kingdom centred in the capital city of Altava (present-day Algeria) which controlled much of the ancient Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis . Berber Christian communities within the Maghreb all but disappeared under Islamic rule. The indigenous Christian population in some Nefzaoua villages persisted until

4656-729: The Makhzen (the central state composed of warlords with aristocratic heritage) in with Berber languages being primarily and spoken, Arab culture and norms not being adopted and dogmatic Islamic Sharia not being applied. However, this legislation explicitly characterized the former as " Arab " and the latter as " Berber ." The Berber Dahir gave birth to the pan-Arab and Islamic Moroccan nationalist movement . Protests broke out in Salé , Rabat , Fes and Tangier , and international figures such as Shakib Arslan took it as evidence of an attempt to "de-Islamize" Morocco. A first formulation appeared under

4753-604: The Massylii, Masinissa, allied himself with Rome, and Syphax, of the Masaesyli, switched his allegiance to the Carthaginian side. At the end of the war, the victorious Romans gave all of Numidia to Masinissa. At the time of his death in 148 BC, Masinissa's territory extended from Mauretania to the boundary of Carthaginian territory, and southeast as far as Cyrenaica, so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage except towards

4850-579: The Mauri, the Numidians near Carthage , and the Gaetulians . The Mauri inhabited the far west (ancient Mauretania , now Morocco and central Algeria). The Numidians occupied the regions between the Mauri and the city-state of Carthage. Both the Mauri and the Numidians had significant sedentary populations living in villages, and their peoples both tilled the land and tended herds. The Gaetulians lived to

4947-434: The Roman province of Mauretania (in modern Algeria and Morocco) to the west, the Roman province of Africa (modern Tunisia) to the east, the Mediterranean to the north, and the Sahara Desert to the south. Its people were the Numidians. The name Numidia was first applied by Polybius and other historians during the third century BC to indicate the territory west of Carthage, including the entire north of Algeria as far as

SECTION 50

#1732773019343

5044-453: The Tassili n'Ajjer paintings, developed and predominated in the Saharan and Mediterranean region (the Maghreb) of northern Africa between 6000 and 2000 BC (until the classical period). Prehistoric Tifinagh inscriptions were found in the Oran region. During the pre-Roman era, several successive independent states (Massylii) existed before King Masinissa unified the people of Numidia . The areas of North Africa that have retained

5141-405: The area near the Great Mosque and in the large seaside cemetery occupying the southwestern corner of the medina. The mausoleum complex of Sidi Abdallah ibn Hassun, one of the two patron saints of the city, is located just west of the mosque. The other patron saint of the city, Ibn Athir, is buried in a prominent mausoleum further west, near the shore. One of the other historic landmarks of the city

5238-472: The campaign against the Berber Dahir began with the recitation of " Ya Latif " in the mosques of Sale. The Ya Latif was a simple prayer chanted during times of calamity. At the noon service, the largest service of the week, the imam incorporated it into his sermon. On July 4, the Ya Latif was recited under the leadership of Mohamed Lyazid, and July 5 at the mosque in Fez Quaraouiyine through Al Alam Chahbi Qorchi. It then spread to other major cities. The text of

5335-536: The city used to rely upon communal standpipes , which were often shut down, depriving some neighbourhoods of safe drinking water for indefinite periods of time. Nevertheless, Salé fared better than inland Moroccan locations, where water scarcity was even more acute. Improvements from the government, local businesses and the water distribution companies of Régie de distribution d'Eau & d'Électricité de Rabat-Salé (REDAL) as of 2010 have meant that this situation has improved drastically. The film Black Hawk Down

5432-428: The city's de facto rulers. The Banu 'Ashara reportedly hosted Ibn Tumart , the founder of the Almohad movement, in their palace in 1121, while he was on his way to Marrakesh . They resisted the Almohad invasion under Ibn Tumart's successor, 'Abd al-Mu'min ( r.  1130–1163 ). As a result, the latter destroyed the city walls, eliminated the Banu 'Ashara and seized their palace. When Abd al-Mu'min summoned

5529-414: The cognate Phoenician states. ... Hence arose that universal disaffection, or rather that deadly hatred, on the part of her foreign subjects, and even of the Phoenician dependencies, toward Carthage, on which every invader of Africa could safely count as his surest support. ... This was the fundamental, the ineradicable weakness of the Carthaginian Empire ... The Punic relationship with the majority of

5626-450: The complexity of the politics involved. Eventually, the Phoenician trading stations would evolve into permanent settlements, and later into small towns, which would presumably require a wide variety of goods as well as sources of food, which could be satisfied through trade with the Berbers. Yet, here too, the Phoenicians probably would be drawn into organizing and directing such local trade, and also into managing agricultural production. In

5723-446: The decades preceding the independence of Morocco, Salé was the stronghold of some "national movement" activists. The reading of the "Latif" (a politically charged prayer to God, read in mosques in loud unison) was launched in Salé and became popular in some cities of Morocco. A petition against the so-called " Berber Dahir " (a decree that allowed some Berber-speaking areas of Morocco to continue using Berber Law, as opposed to Sharia Law)

5820-434: The elegant Libyan pharaohs on the Nile). Correspondingly, in early Carthage, careful attention was given to securing the most favourable treaties with the Berber chieftains, "which included intermarriage between them and the Punic aristocracy". In this regard, perhaps the legend about Dido , the foundress of Carthage, as related by Trogus is apposite. Her refusal to wed the Mauritani chieftain Hiarbus might be indicative of

5917-488: The example of Carthage, their organized politics increased in scope and sophistication. In fact, for a time their numerical and military superiority (the best horse riders of that time) enabled some Berber kingdoms to impose a tribute on Carthage, a condition that continued into the 5th century BC. Also, due to the Berbero-Libyan Meshwesh dynasty 's rule of Egypt (945–715 BC), the Berbers near Carthage commanded significant respect (yet probably appearing more rustic than

SECTION 60

#1732773019343

6014-414: The existence of a town along the Bou Regreg at an early era, but they may have been referring to Chellah (former Sala Colonia) rather than the present town of Salé. The town of Salé proper was probably founded in the 11th century by families from al-Andalus (present-day Spain), most importantly the Banu 'Ashara. The latter family included learned jurists ( faqih s ) and judges ( qadi s ) and they became

6111-481: The fourth century BC became "the largest single element in the Carthaginian army". Yet in times of stress at Carthage, when a foreign force might be pushing against the city-state, some Berbers would see it as an opportunity to advance their interests, given their otherwise low status in Punic society. Thus, when the Greeks under Agathocles (361–289 BC) of Sicily landed at Cape Bon and threatened Carthage (in 310 BC), there were Berbers, under Ailymas, who went over to

6208-399: The highest frequencies of this lineage. Additionally, genomic analysis found that Berber and other Maghreb communities have a high frequency of an ancestral component that originated in the Near East. This Maghrebi element peaks among Tunisian Berbers. This ancestry is related to the Coptic/Ethio-Somali component, which diverged from these and other West Eurasian-affiliated components before

6305-401: The influence of a group of specialists of the Berbers of the High Atlas and the Middle Atlas , such as Maurice Le Glay (civil controller and author of Récits de la Plaine et des Monts, Les Sentiers de la Guerre et de l'Amour, La Mort du Rougui etc.), a core of professors hostile to pan-Arabism and dogmatic Islam and in collaboration with the bishop of Rabat . The purpose of the dahir was

6402-516: The invading Greeks. During the long Second Punic War (218–201 BC) with Rome (see below), the Berber King Masinissa ( c.  240  – c.  148 BC) joined with the invading Roman general Scipio, resulting in the war-ending defeat of Carthage at Zama, despite the presence of their renowned general Hannibal; on the other hand, the Berber King Syphax (d. 202 BC) had supported Carthage. The Romans, too, read these cues, so that they cultivated their Berber alliances and, subsequently, favored

6499-496: The local populace and settled the region permanently, the Medes of his army that married the Libyans formed the Maur people, while the other part of his Army formed the Nomadas or as they are today known as the Numidians which later on united all of Berber tribes of North Africa under the rule of Massinissa . According to the Al-Fiḥrist , the Barber (i.e. Berbers) comprised one of seven principal races in Africa. The medieval Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), recounting

6596-419: The main international airport serving both cities. The Phoenicians established a settlement called Sala, later the site of a Roman colony, Sala Colonia , across the river on the south side of the Bou Regreg estuary. The local Banu Ifran apparently cultivated the legend that the city's name was derived from that of Salah, son of Ham , son of Noah . The Arab historians al-Bakri and Ibn Hawqal mention

6693-573: The maternal haplogroups K1 , T2 and X2 , the latter of which were common mtDNA lineages in Neolithic Europe and Anatolia . These ancient individuals likewise bore the Berber-associated Maghrebi genomic component. This altogether indicates that the late-Neolithic Kehf el Baroud inhabitants were ancestral to contemporary populations in the area, but also likely experienced gene flow from Europe . The late-Neolithic Kehf el Baroud inhabitants were modelled as being of about 50% local North African ancestry and 50% Early European Farmer (EEF) ancestry. It

6790-450: The maternal haplogroups U6a and M1 , all of which are frequent among present-day communities in the Maghreb. These ancient individuals also bore an autochthonous Maghrebi genomic component that peaks among modern Berbers, indicating that they were ancestral to populations in the area. Additionally, fossils excavated at the Kelif el Boroud site near Rabat were found to carry the broadly-distributed paternal haplogroup T-M184 as well as

6887-433: The mtDNA haplogroups U6 , H , JT , and V , which points to population continuity in the region dating from the Iberomaurusian period. Human fossils excavated at the Ifri n'Amr ou Moussa site in Morocco have been radiocarbon dated to the Early Neolithic period, c.  5,000 BC. Ancient DNA analysis of these specimens indicates that they carried paternal haplotypes related to the E1b1b1b1a (E-M81) subclade and

6984-533: The nationalist movement and was the beginning of the independence movement. It led to a new petition on January 11, 1944, called the "Manifesto of Independence". Berbers Berbers , or the Berber peoples , also known as Amazigh or Imazighen , are a diverse grouping of distinct ethnic groups indigenous to North Africa who predate the arrival of Arabs in the Maghreb . Their main connections are identified by their usage of Berber languages , most of them mutually unintelligible, which are part of

7081-646: The near south, on the northern margins of the Sahara , and were less settled, with predominantly pastoral elements. For their part, the Phoenicians ( Semitic-speaking Canaanites ) came from perhaps the most advanced multicultural sphere then existing, the western coast of the Fertile Crescent region of West Asia . Accordingly, the material culture of Phoenicia was likely more functional and efficient, and their knowledge more advanced, than that of

7178-409: The newcomers from the east in an asymmetric symbiosis. As the centuries passed, a society of Punic people of Phoenician descent but born in Africa, called Libyphoenicians emerged there. This term later came to be applied also to Berbers acculturated to urban Phoenician culture. Yet the whole notion of a Berber apprenticeship to the Punic civilization has been called an exaggeration sustained by

7275-534: The number of its Libyan and foreign soldiers, leading to the Mercenary War (240–237 BC). The city-state also seemed to reward those leaders known to deal ruthlessly with its subject peoples, hence the frequent Berber insurrections. Moderns fault Carthage for failure "to bind her subjects to herself, as Rome did [her Italians]", yet Rome and the Italians held far more in common perhaps than did Carthage and

7372-465: The oral traditions prevalent in his day, sets down two popular opinions as to the origin of the Berbers: according to one opinion, they are descended from Canaan, son of Ham , and have for ancestors Berber, son of Temla, son of Mazîgh, son of Canaan, son of Ham, a son of Noah; alternatively, Abou-Bekr Mohammed es-Souli (947 CE) held that they are descended from Berber, the son of Keloudjm ( Casluhim ),

7469-421: The recognition " Berber Justice ," and their independence from the dispotic Arab, urban and Islamic law. The Berber tribes followed their own set of laws and had been allowed to operate and evolve independently for centuries. They elected the heads of their tribes at yearly circles and disliked beheading, stoning, amputation or other brutal Islamic penalties. [3] The dahir recognized that independence and formalized

7566-451: The region did not see themselves as a single cultural or linguistic unit, nor was there a greater "Berber community", due to their differing cultures. They also did not refer to themselves as Berbers/Amazigh but had their own terms to refer to their own groups and communities. They started being referred to collectively as Berbers after the Arab conquests of the 7th century and this distinction

7663-402: The reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus , who was a North African of Roman/Punic ancestry (perhaps with some Berber blood). Numidia (202 – 46 BC) was an ancient Berber kingdom in modern Algeria and part of Tunisia. It later alternated between being a Roman province and being a Roman client state . The kingdom was located on the eastern border of modern Algeria, bordered by

7760-477: The river Mulucha ( Muluya ), about 160 kilometres (100 mi) west of Oran. The Numidians were conceived of as two great groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under King Gala , were allied with Carthage, while the western Masaesyli, under King Syphax, were allied with Rome. In 206 BC, the new king of

7857-482: The rulers of al-Andalus to pledge allegiance to him in 1151, he received them in this palace. Later in the 12th century, when the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur ( r.  1184–1199 ) founded Ribat al-Fath (present-day Rabat ) across the river, Salé seems to have remained important and was used as a residence by the Almohad caliphs, who also made various improvements to the city. The current Great Mosque of Salé

7954-600: The same population as modern Berbers. The Maghreb region in northwestern Africa is believed to have been inhabited by Berbers from at least 10,000 BC. Cave paintings , which have been dated to twelve millennia before present, have been found in the Tassili n'Ajjer region of southeastern Algeria. Other rock art has been discovered at Tadrart Acacus in the Libyan desert. A Neolithic society, marked by domestication and subsistence agriculture and richly depicted in

8051-559: The sea. Masinissa was succeeded by his son Micipsa . When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Masinissa's illegitimate grandson, Jugurtha , of Berber origin, who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarreled immediately after the death of Micipsa. Jugurtha had Hiempsal killed, which led to open war with Adherbal. After Jugurtha defeated him in open battle, Adherbal fled to Rome for help. The Roman officials, allegedly due to bribes but perhaps more likely out of

8148-602: The signing of the Manifest of Independence of Morocco on 11 January 1944 by many "Slawi" activists and leaders. Salé has been deemed to have been the stronghold of the Moroccan left for many decades, where many leaders have resided. Salé, like many other Moroccan cities, had its own mellah , where the Jewish community resided. Raphael Encaoua, a famous rabbi born in Salé is buried in the Jewish cemetery nearby. The prefecture

8245-722: The son of Mesraim , the son of Ham. They belong to a powerful, formidable, brave and numerous people; a true people like so many others the world has seen – like the Arabs, the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans. The men who belong to this family of peoples have inhabited the Maghreb since the beginning. As of about 5000 BC, the populations of North Africa were descended primarily from the Iberomaurusian and Capsian cultures, with

8342-528: The sub-humid bioclimatic zone with an average annual precipitation of 560 mm. Salé's climate resembles that of the southwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula and the coast of Southern California . The historic old city ( medina ) of Salé occupies a large area near the mouth of the Bou Regreg river. It is enclosed by defensive walls pierced with several entrances, the most notable of which

8439-463: The sultan, the text drafted by France was translated into Arabic. The translator, Abdellatif Sbihi , alerted nationalists from Salé who saw it as an attempt to "divide Moroccan people", especially with its Article 6. On Friday, June 20, 1930, Imam Ali Haj Awad presided at the Great Mosque of Salé and read the " Ya Latif ." Robert Rezette, in his book The Political Parties of Morocco wrote that

8536-546: The town and afterwards helped to rebuild the city walls. The historic gate of Bab el-Mrisa was constructed at this time and remains a landmark of the city. During the Marinid period, the city's fortifications continued to be upgraded and a new protected harbour was built. The harbour, located on the south side of the city, was linked to the river by two channels, with Bab el-Mrisa and another monumental gate serving as water gates through which boats passed. The Marinids added new religious and charitable constructions, including

8633-519: The tribal Berbers. This social-cultural interaction in early Carthage has been summarily described: Lack of contemporary written records makes the drawing of conclusions here uncertain, which can only be based on inference and reasonable conjecture about matters of social nuance. Yet it appears that the Phoenicians generally did not interact with the Berbers as economic equals, but employed their agricultural labour, and their household services, whether by hire or indenture; many became sharecroppers . For

8730-453: Was based on the colonial Kabyle myth and reinforced a dichotomy in popular Moroccan historiography: the division of the country into Bled el-Makhzen , areas under the direct control of the Sultan and the Makhzen , or the state, (especially urban areas such as Fes and Rabat ), and Bled es-Siba , areas that were historically and geographically isolated and beyond the direct control of

8827-519: Was built on the order of Yaqub al-Mansur in 1196, over the site of city's former main mosque whose roof had collapsed. (Its present-day form, however, is the result of 18th-century renovations. ) Al-Mansur is also reported to have created the first bridge linking the city with Rabat across the river. In September 1260, Salé was raided and occupied by warriors sent in a fleet of ships by King Alfonso X of Castile . The Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd Al-Haqq ( r.  1258–1286 ) reconquered

8924-582: Was given to Sultan Mohamed V and the Resident General of France. The petition and the "Latif" prayer led to the withdrawal and adjustment of the so-called "Berber Decree" of May 1930. The activists who opposed the "Berber Decree" apparently feared that the explicit recognition of the Berber Customary Law (a very secular-minded Berber tradition) would threaten the position of Islam and its Sharia law system. Others believed that opposing

9021-479: Was partially filmed in Salé, in particular the wide angle aerial shots with helicopters flying down the coastline. The character Robinson Crusoe , in the early part of Daniel Defoe 's novel by the same name, spends time in captivity of the local pirates, the Salé Rovers , and at last sails off to liberty from the mouth of the Salé river - an adventure less well remembered than the protagonist's later sojourn on

9118-579: Was revived by French colonial administrators in the 19th century. Today, the term "Berber" is viewed as pejorative by many who prefer the term "Amazigh". Since the late 20th century, a trans-national movement – known as Berberism or the Berber Culture Movement – has emerged among various parts of the Berber populations of North Africa to promote a collective Amazigh ethnic identity and to militate for greater linguistic rights and cultural recognition. The indigenous populations of

9215-725: Was suggested that EEF ancestry had entered North Africa through Cardial Ware colonists from Iberia sometime between 5000 and 3000 BC. They were found to be closely related to the Guanches of the Canary Islands . The authors of the study suggested that the Berbers of Morocco carried a substantial amount of EEF ancestry before the establishment of Roman colonies in Berber Africa . The great tribes of Berbers in classical antiquity (when they were often known as ancient Libyans) were said to be three (roughly, from west to east):

9312-466: Was the first continental crown in the club's history. The football section of AS Salé is the football club of the city. Salé's main airport is Rabat–Salé Airport , which is located in Salé but also serves Rabat , the capital city of Morocco . Salé is served by two principal railway stations run by the national rail service, the ONCF . These stations are Salé-Tabriquet and Salé-Ville . Salé-Ville

9409-606: Was used as a tribal surname in Roman Mauretania Caesariensis . Abraham Isaac Laredo proposes that the term Amazigh could be derived from "Mezeg", which is the name of Dedan of Sheba in the Targum . Ibn Khaldun says the Berbers were descendants of Barbar, the son of Tamalla, son of Mazigh, son of Canaan , son of Ham , son of Noah . The Numidian , Mauri , and Libu populations of antiquity are typically understood to refer to approximately

#342657