54-482: Bhakri ( bhākri, bhākkari, bhākari, bhākhri, bhākhari ) is a round flatbread often eaten in the cuisines of the states of Maharashtra , Gujarat , Rajasthan , and Karnataka in India . Bhakri is prepared using jowar or bajra, which is coarser than a regular wheat chapati . Bhakri can be either soft or hard in texture, unlike khakhra in respect to hardness. Different types of millets ( jowar , bajra , ragi ) are
108-751: A golden eagle , and skull of a beech marten . At Ain Mallaha (in Northern Israel), Anatolian obsidian and shellfish from the Nile valley have been found. The source of malachite beads is still unknown. Epipaleolithic Natufians carried parthenocarpic figs from Africa to the southeastern corner of the Fertile Crescent , c. 10,000 BC . There was a rich bone industry , including harpoons and fish hooks . Stone and bone were worked into pendants and other ornaments. There are
162-551: A microlithic industry centered on short blades and bladelets. The microburin technique was used. Geometric microliths include lunates , trapezes, and triangles. There are backed blades as well. A special type of retouch ( Helwan retouch ) is characteristic for the early Natufian. In the late Natufian, the Harif-point, a typical arrowhead made from a regular blade, became common in the Negev . Some scholars use it to define
216-633: A Proto-Mediterranean population. According to Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, "It seems that certain preadaptive traits, developed already by the Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran populations within the Mediterranean park forest, played an important role in the emergence of the new socioeconomic system known as the Natufian culture." Settlements occur mostly in Israel and Palestine. This could be deemed
270-602: A carved stone object held at the British Museum , is the oldest known depiction of a couple having sex. It was found in the Ain Sakhri cave in the Judean desert . Natufian grave goods are typically made of shell, teeth (of red deer ), bones, and stone. There are pendants, bracelets, necklaces, earrings, and belt-ornaments as well. In 2008, the 12,400–12,000 cal BC grave of an apparently significant Natufian female
324-638: A dissemination of morphological characteristics and artifacts from North Africa to the Near East, as well as explaining the presence of Y-chromosome haplogroup E in Natufians and Levantine farmers. Fregel summarizes that "More evidence will be needed to determine the specific origin of the North African Upper Paleolithic populations". In their 2017 paper, Ranajit Das , Paul Wexler , Mehdi Pirooznia and Eran Elhaik analyzed
378-481: A few centimeters thick so that they can be easily eaten without being sliced. They can be baked in an oven, fried in hot oil, grilled over hot coals, cooked on a hot pan, tava , comal , or metal griddle, and eaten fresh or packaged and frozen for later use. Flatbreads were amongst the earliest processed foods , and evidence of their production has been found at ancient sites in Mesopotamia , ancient Egypt , and
432-459: A few human figurines made of limestone (El-Wad, Ain Mallaha, Ain Sakhri), but the favorite subject of representative art seems to have been animals. Ostrich-shell containers have been found in the Negev . In 2018, the world's oldest brewery was found, with the residue of 13,000-year-old beer, in a prehistoric cave near Haifa in Israel when researchers were looking for clues into what plant foods
486-475: A hundred kinds of cereals, fruits, nuts, and other edible parts of plants, and the flora of the Levant during the Natufian period was not the dry, barren, and thorny landscape of today, but rather woodland . The Natufian developed in the same region as the earlier Kebaran culture . It is generally seen as a successor, which evolved out of elements within that preceding culture. There were also other industries in
540-554: A majority component that is "maximized in Late Pleistocene (Epipaleolithic) Natufian hunter–gatherers from the Levant". Alexander Militarev , Vitaly Shevoroshkin and others have linked the Natufian culture to the proto-Afroasiatic language , which they in turn believe has a Levantine origin. Some scholars, for example Christopher Ehret , Roger Blench and others, contend that the Afroasiatic Urheimat
594-430: A mix of about 50% Basal Eurasian ancestry, and 50% from a West-Eurasian Unknown Hunter Gatherer (UHG) population, which was related to European Western Hunter-Gatherers . Vallini et al. (2024) modeled the amount of Basal Eurasian ancestry among Natufians at roughly 15%, with the remainder being associated with West Eurasian sources. The Natufian population also displays ancestral ties to Paleolithic Taforalt samples,
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#1732794046647648-553: A mixture of a Dzudzuana component and a sub-Saharan African component" (or an ancient and now-extinct North African component that diverged prior to the Out-of-Africa migration) and "also argue that (...) the Taforalt people (...) contributed to the genetic composition of Natufians and not the other way around", , which, according to Lazaridis et al., would be consistent with morphological and archaeological studies that indicate
702-503: A plausible source for haplogroup E in Natufians; still according to Shriner, the Natufian samples had 61.2% ancestry related to Arabs and 10.8% ancestry related to West Asians. As summarized by Rosa Fregel, a later preprint from Lazaridis et al. (2018) has contested Loosdrecht's conclusion and argues for a minor sub-Saharan African component in Natufians, stating "that [the Iberomaurusians of] Taforalt can be better modeled as
756-551: A separate culture, the Harifian . Sickle blades also appear for the first time in the Natufian lithic industry. The characteristic sickle-gloss shows that they were used to cut the silica -rich stems of cereals, indirectly suggesting the existence of incipient agriculture. Shaft straighteners made of ground stone indicate the practice of archery . There are heavy ground-stone bowl mortars as well. The Ain Sakhri lovers ,
810-440: A smooth stiff dough, using hot water. The dough is split into little balls. The ball is then flattened using one's palms. There are two ways to make the bhakri. It is either flattened on a surface by pressing with one's palm or it is made thin by holding the ball in both palms which requires a lot of skill. The tava (pan) is heated and the bhakri is cooked by applying a little water to the upper surface and spreading it all over with
864-406: A young man and woman sharing fresh tandır bread is a symbol of young love, however, the culture of traditional bread baking is changing with younger generations, especially with those who reside in towns showing preference for modern conveniences. Natufian Natufian culture ( / n ə ˈ t uː f i ə n / nə-TOO-fee-ən ) is a Late Epipaleolithic archaeological culture of
918-604: Is a very popular dish. In the coastal regions like Konkan and Goa , the rice flour bhakris are mainly served with fish curry. In modern days, bhakhris have increasingly been replaced by wheat rotis and phulkas but they still retain popularity in many regions and as specialty dishes. Flatbread A flatbread is bread made usually with flour ; water , milk , yogurt , or other liquid; and salt , and then thoroughly rolled into flattened dough . Many flatbreads are unleavened , although some are leavened, such as pita bread . Flatbreads range from below one millimeter to
972-613: Is an example of round stone structures. Cave sites are also seen frequently during the Natufian culture. El Wad is a Natufian cave site with occupation in the front part of the cave also called the terrace. Some Natufian sites were located in forest/steppe areas and others near inland mountains. The Natufian settlements appear to be the first to exhibit evidence of food storage; not all Natufian sites have storage facilities, but they have been identified at certain sites. Natufians are also suggested to have visited Cyprus , requiring travel over significant distances of water. The Natufian had
1026-475: Is most closely linked to the Arabian lineage. Possible bidirectional geneflow events between these groups has also been suggested, with particular evidence for affinity between the Natufians and Iberomaurusians. Contact between Natufians and other Neolithic Levantines, Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG), Anatolian and Iranian farmers is believed to have decreased genetic variability among later populations in
1080-464: Is poor because of the soil conditions, but at some sites such as Tell Abu Hureyra substantial amounts of plant remains discovered through flotation have been excavated. However wild cereals like legumes , almonds , acorns and pistachios have been collected throughout most of the Levant . Animal bones show that mountain and goitered gazelles ( Gazella gazella and Gazella subgutturosa ) were
1134-473: Is served with stuffed brinjal curry. In Vidarbha , it is eaten with " jhunka " – a coarse and thick variant of "pithla." It has traditionally been the rural staple which would be carried to the farm at the crack of dawn and make up for both breakfast and lunch. In the fields, bhakri even used to serve as a plate, on which chutney , kharda or thecha was served and eaten together. In Khandesh region, bhakri and shev bhaji (thick savory curry prepared from sev )
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#17327940466471188-708: Is to be found in North Africa or Northeast Africa , probably in the area of Egypt , the Sahara , Horn of Africa or Sudan . Within this group, Ehret, who like Militarev believes Afroasiatic may already have been in existence in the Natufian period, would associate Natufians only with the Near Eastern Proto-Semitic branch of Afroasiatic. John Bengston documented that archeological and physical anthropological evidence showed Natufians are closely related to modern Semitic-speaking people from
1242-502: The Fertile Crescent , but such suggestions are considered highly speculative until more North African archaeological evidence can be gathered. In fact, Weiss et al. have shown that the earliest known intensive usage of plants was in the Levant 23,000 years ago at the Ohalo II site . Anthropologist C. Loring Brace (1993) cross-analysed the craniometric traits of Natufian specimens with those of various ancient and modern groups from
1296-678: The Indus civilization . The origin of all flatbread baking systems are said to be from the Fertile Crescent in West Asia, where they would subsequently spread to other regions of the world. In 2018, charred bread crumbs were found at a Natufian site called Shubayqa 1 in Jordan (in Harrat ash Shaam , the Black Desert) dating to 12,400 BC, some 4,000 years before the start of agriculture in
1350-728: The Mesolithic , a transitional period between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic which was well-represented in Europe but had not yet been found in the Near East . A year later, when she discovered similar material at el-Wad Terrace , Garrod suggested the name "the Natufian culture", after Wadi an-Natuf that ran close to Shuqba. Over the next two decades Garrod found Natufian material at several of her pioneering excavations in
1404-634: The Mount Carmel region, including el-Wad, Kebara and Tabun , as did the French archaeologist René Neuville , firmly establishing the Natufian culture in the regional prehistoric chronology. As early as 1931, both Garrod and Neuville drew attention to the presence of stone sickles in Natufian assemblages and the possibility that this represented a very early agriculture. Epipalaeolithic Near East Caucasus Zagros Fertile Crescent : Europe : Africa : Siberia : Radiocarbon dating places
1458-537: The Neolithic prehistoric Levant in Western Asia , dating to around 15,000 to 11,500 years ago. The culture was unusual in that it supported a sedentary or semi-sedentary population even before the introduction of agriculture . Natufian communities may be the ancestors of the builders of the first Neolithic settlements of the region, which may have been the earliest in the world. Some evidence suggests deliberate cultivation of cereals , specifically rye , by
1512-629: The Akkadian tinuru , which becomes tannur in Hebrew and Arabic, tandır in Turkish, and tandur in Urdu/Hindi. Of the hundreds of bread varieties known from cuneiform sources, unleavened tinuru bread was made by adhering bread to the side walls of a heated cylindrical oven. This type of bread is still central to rural food culture in this part of the world, reflected by the local folklore, where
1566-773: The Lazaridis et al. (2016) study concluding that the Natufians, together with one Neolithic Levantine sample, clustered in the proximity to modern Palestinians and Bedouins , and also "marginally overlapped" with Yemenite Jews . Ferreira et al. (2021) and Almarri et al. (2021) found that ancient Natufians cluster with modern Arabian groups, such as Saudi Arabians and Yemenis , which derive most of their ancestry from local Natufian-like hunter-gatherer peoples and have less Neolithic Anatolian ancestry than Levantines. Sirak et al. (2024) found that medieval Socotra (the Soqotri people ), similar to modern Saudis, Yemenis and Bedouins, have
1620-571: The Levant, citing the microburin technique and "microlithic forms such as arched backed bladelets and La Mouillah points." But recent research has shown that the presence of arched backed bladelets, La Mouillah points, and the use of the microburin technique was already apparent in the Nebekian industry of the Eastern Levant. And Maher et al. state that, "Many technological nuances that have often been always highlighted as significant during
1674-499: The Levant. Under his hypothesis, Afro-Asiatic branches originated in North Africa proper (Egypt), and the age of these languages can be dated to the periods of the Natufian culture around ~12,000 years ago. He postulated this based on the biological discontinuity between Pleistocene and Holocene North Africa, where there was population replacement and admixture in this region involving external migrants from northern areas, whom were
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1728-799: The Middle East. Migrations from the Near-East also occurred towards Africa, and the West Eurasian-like ancestry among populations in the Horn of Africa being best represented by the Levant Neolithic, and may be associated with the spread of Afroasiatic languages. Lazaridis et al. (2016) did not find a greater genetic affinity between Natufians and sub-Saharan Africans than that existing between sub-Saharan Africans and other ancient populations of Western Eurasia, and also stated that
1782-503: The Natufian culture at Tell Abu Hureyra , the site of earliest evidence of agriculture in the world. The world's oldest known evidence of the production of bread-like foodstuff has been found at Shubayqa 1, a 14,400-year-old site in Jordan's northeastern desert, 4,000 years before the emergence of agriculture in Southwest Asia . In addition, the oldest known evidence of possible beer-brewing , dating to approximately 13,000 BC,
1836-516: The Natufian culture at an epoch from the terminal Pleistocene to the very beginning of the Holocene , a time period between 12,500 and 9,500 BC . The period is commonly split into two subperiods: Early Natufian (12,000–10,800 BC) and Late Natufian (10,800–9,500 BC). The Late Natufian most likely occurred in tandem with the Younger Dryas (10,800 to 9,500 BC). The Levant hosts more than
1890-500: The Natufian culture of the Levant and of contemporary foragers in coastal North Africa across the late Pleistocene and early Holocene boundary". According to Isabelle De Groote and Louise Humphrey, Natufians practiced the Iberomaurusian and Capsian custom of sometimes extracting their maxillary central incisors (upper front teeth). Ofer Bar-Yosef has argued that there are signs of influences coming from North Africa to
1944-671: The Natufian people were eating. This is 8,000 years earlier than experts previously thought beer was invented. A study published in 2019 shows an advanced knowledge of lime plaster production at a Natufian cemetery in Nahal Ein Gev II site in the Upper Jordan Valley dated to 12 thousand (calibrated) years before present [k cal BP]. Production of plaster of this quality was previously thought to have been achieved some 2,000 years later. The Natufian people lived by hunting and gathering. The preservation of plant remains
1998-457: The Natufian were already present during the Early and Middle EP [Epipalaeolithic] and do not, in most cases, represent a radical departure in knowledge, tradition, or behavior." Authors such as Christopher Ehret have built upon the little evidence available to develop scenarios of intensive usage of plants having built up first in North Africa, as a precursor to the development of true farming in
2052-541: The Near East, Africa and Europe. The Late Pleistocene Epipalaeolithic Natufian sample was described as problematic due to its small size (consisting of only three males and one female), as well as the lack of a comparative sample from the Natufians' putative descendants in the Neolithic Near East. Brace observed that the Natufian fossils lay between those of the Niger–Congo-speaking series included and
2106-425: The ancestry of a primitive population from North Africa could not be tested because modern North Africans are largely descended from late migrant populations from Eurasia. However, Daniel Shriner (2018), using modern populations as a reference, found 28% autosomal African ancestry in Natufian samples, with 21.2% related to North Africa and 6.8% related to Omotic-speaking populations in southern Ethiopia, which reveals
2160-464: The common grains used for making bhakris. These millet bhakris are popular in the Deccan plateau regions of India ( Maharashtra and Northern Karnataka) as well as the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan . In the coastal Konkan and Goa regions of western India rice flour is used for making bhakri. The dough for bhakri is prepared by mixing the flour with a small amount of salt in a bowl and kneading into
2214-571: The core zone of the Natufian culture, but Israel is a place that has been excavated more frequently than other places hence the greater number of sites. During the years more sites have been found outside the core zone of Israel and Palestine stretching into what now is Syria , Lebanon , Jordan , the Sinai Peninsula and the Negev desert. The settlements in the Natufian culture were larger and more permanent than in preceding ones. Some Natufian sites had stone built architecture; Ain Mallaha
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2268-487: The help of the cook's fingers. The other side is also cooked on the tava. Once it is prepared, it is roasted in the direct flame on both the sides. A bhakri can be either soft or hard. The hard bhakri basically has a hard outer layer to add a crunch. Bhakri is typically served with yogurt , garlic chutney , pithla , baingan bharta , thecha (chutney made of green chillies and peanuts), preparations of green leafy vegetables and raw onion. In northern parts of Karnataka, it
2322-521: The higher temperatures prevailing since the Last Glacial Maximum , which produced a sudden drought in the Levant. This would have endangered the wild cereals, which could no longer compete with dryland scrub, but upon which the population had become dependent to sustain a relatively large sedentary population. By artificially clearing scrub and planting seeds obtained from elsewhere, they began to practice agriculture. However, this theory of
2376-517: The main prey. Additionally, deer , aurochs and wild boar were hunted in the steppe , as well as onagers and caprids ( ibex ). Waterfowl and freshwater fish formed part of the diet in the Jordan river valley. Animal bones from Salibiya I (12,300 – 10,800 cal BP) have been interpreted as evidence for communal hunts with nets, however, the radiocarbon dates are far too old compared to the cultural remains of this settlement, indicating contamination of
2430-780: The makers of the Epipaleolithic Iberomaurusian culture of the Maghreb , the Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture of the Levant, the Early Neolithic Ifri N'Amr Ou Moussa and the Late Neolithic Kelif el Boroud culture of North Africa, with samples associated with these early cultures all sharing a common genomic component dubbed the "Natufian component", which diverged from other West Eurasian lineages ~26,000 years ago, and
2484-437: The origin of agriculture is controversial in the scientific community. At the Natufian site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together. At another Natufian site at the cave of Hayonim, humans were found buried with two canids. Ancient DNA analysis of Natufian skeletal remains found that the Natufian ancestry could be modelled as
2538-489: The other samples (Near East, Europe), which he suggested may point to a Sub-Saharan influence in their constitution. Subsequent ancient DNA analysis of Natufian skeletal remains by Lazaridis et al. (2016) found that the specimens instead were a mix of 50% Basal Eurasian ancestral component (see Archaeogenetics ) and 50% West-Eurasian Unknown Hunter Gatherer (UHG) population related to European Western Hunter-Gatherers . Natufians have also been described by anthropologists as
2592-488: The region, such as the Mushabian culture of the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula , which are sometimes distinguished from the Kebaran culture or believed to have been involved in the evolution of the Natufian culture. More generally there has been discussion of the similarities of these cultures with those found in coastal North Africa. Graeme Barker notes there are: "similarities in the respective archaeological records of
2646-524: The region. Analysis showed that they were probably from flatbread containing wild barley , einkorn wheat , oats , and Bolboschoenus glaucus tubers (a kind of rush). Primitive clay ovens ( tandir ) used to bake unleavened flatbread were common in Anatolia during the Seljuk and Ottoman eras, and have been found at archaeological sites distributed across the Middle East. The word tandır comes from
2700-407: The samples. A pita-like bread has been found from 12,500 BC attributed to Natufians. This bread is made of wild cereal seeds and papyrus cousin tubers, ground into flour. According to one theory, it was a sudden change in climate , the Younger Dryas event ( c. 10,800 to 9500 BC), which inspired the development of agriculture . The Younger Dryas was a 1,000-year-long interruption in
2754-748: The term Natufian based on her excavations at the Shuqba cave (Wadi an-Natuf) near the town of Shuqba . The Natufian culture was discovered by British archaeologist Dorothy Garrod during her excavations of Shuqba cave in the Judaean Hills , on the West Bank of the Jordan River. Prior to the 1930s, the majority of archaeological work taking place in British Palestine was biblical archaeology focused on historic periods, and little
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#17327940466472808-471: Was discovered in a ceremonial pit in the Hilazon Tachtit cave in northern Israel. Media reports referred to this person as a "shaman". The burial contained the remains of at least three aurochs and 86 tortoises, all of which are thought to have been brought to the site during a funeral feast. The body was surrounded by tortoise shells, the pelvis of a leopard , forearm of a boar , a wingtip of
2862-506: Was found in Raqefet Cave on Mount Carmel , although the beer-related residues may simply be a result of a spontaneous fermentation . Generally, though, Natufians exploited wild cereals and hunted animals, notably gazelles . Archaeogenetic analysis has revealed derivation of later (Neolithic to Bronze Age) Levantines primarily from Natufians, besides substantial admixture from Chalcholithic Anatolians . Dorothy Garrod coined
2916-595: Was known about the region's prehistory. In 1928, Garrod was invited by the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem (BSAJ) to excavate Shuqba cave, where prehistoric stone tools had been discovered by Père Mallon four years earlier. She discovered a layer sandwiched between the Upper Palaeolithic and Bronze Age deposits characterised by the presence of microliths . She identified this with
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