Traditional
54-518: In Hinduism , Bhasmasura ( Sanskrit : भस्मासुर , Bhasmāsura ) is an asura or demon, who was granted the power to burn up and immediately turn into ashes (bhasma) anyone whose head he touched with his hand. The asura was tricked by the Vishnu 's only female avatar , the enchantress Mohini , to turn himself into ashes. While Bhasmasura is a character who does not appear in the Puranas, his story
108-465: A koyil , which means "residence of a god". The modern Tamil word for temple is koil ( Tamil : கோயில் ). Ritual worship was also given to kings. Modern words for god like kō ( Tamil : கோ "king"), iṟai ( இறை "emperor") and āṇḍavar ( ஆண்டவன் "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Meenātchi who ruled Madurai , and Indhiran ,
162-617: A complex range of interpretations. While according to Doniger O'Flaherty, the central message and moral values remain the same. They have been modified by various philosophical schools over time, and are taken to have deeper, often symbolic, meaning. Pantheism Vaishnavism (Vishnu-centric) Shaivism (Shiva-centric) Shaktism (Goddess-centric) Henotheism and Polytheism Dravidian folk religion ' (Indigenous Dravidian faith) Hinduism shares mythemes with Buddhism , Jainism , and Sikhism . Dravidian folk religion The early Dravidian religion constituted
216-532: A devotee to goddess Kali to redeem a vow he had made to the deity. Theyyam is a ritual shaman dance popular in Kerala and parts of Karnataka . Theyyam migrates into the artist who has assumed the spirit and it is a belief that the god or goddess comes in the midst of fathering through the medium of possessed dancer. The dancer throws rice on the audience and distributes turmeric powder as symbols of blessing. Theyyam incorporates dance, mime and music and enshrines
270-480: A divine king. Renunciate traditions contributed elements that questioned sacrifices and the killing of animals, and promoted asceticism and vegetarianism. All of these themes would be incorporated by the Brahmin classes into the later Hindu synthesis , which developed in response to the sramanic movements between ca. 500–300 BCE and 500 CE, and also found their way into Hindu mythology. The era from 400 BCE to 400 CE
324-480: A fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths . For folklorists, historians, philosophers or theologians this is very different from the use of "myth" simply indicating that something is not true. Instead, the truth value of a myth is not a defining criterion. Hindu myths can be found in the Vedas , the itihasa ( Ramayana and Mahabharata ), and the major Puranas . Other sources include
378-637: A fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions. Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India , itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations", but also the Sramana or renouncer traditions of east India , and mesolithic and neolithic cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley civilisation , Dravidian traditions, and
432-578: A god who was later merged into Indra . Tolkaappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", ( Tamil : வான்புகழ் மூவர் , Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar ). In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple. The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess
486-537: A long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century. It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory. Many Hindu sects such as Bhakti movement and Lingayatism originated in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka respectively. In addition to literary sources, folk festivals, village deities, shamanism, ritual theater and traditions, which are unique to
540-553: A nightmare to the whole world. Vishnu assumed the form of the ravishing Mohini, an attractive dancer, who allured him with her charm, and initiated a dance called the Muktanṛtya . During the course of this dance, Bhasmasura was forced to place his hand on his own head. The moment his hand touched his head, he was burnt to ashes. Based on the popular story, the dancers take different postures leading to them ultimately revolving both their hands on their heads. The dancer enacting Bhasmasura
594-757: A non- Vedic , pre- Indo-Aryan , indigenous religion practiced by Dravidian peoples in the Indian subcontinent that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic . The Agamas are non- Vedic in origin, and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts, or as pre-Vedic compositions. The Agamas are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of murti , worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga. The worship of tutelary deities and sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism
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#1732772929984648-711: A particular ethnolinguistic group like the Tamil Periya Puranam and Divya Prabandham , and the Mangal Kavya of Bengal. Hindu myths are also found in widely translated popular texts such as the fables of the Panchatantra and the Hitopadesha , as well as in Southeast Asian texts. Myth is a genre of folklore or theology consisting primarily of narratives that play
702-613: A period of exuberant polytheism. However, this was also accompanied with the belief in monotheism, the idea that all paths lead to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman . According to Williams, during the Tantric period from 900 to 1600 CE, the mythology of Tantra and Shaktism revived and enriched blood sacrifice and the pursuit of pleasure as central themes. Tantra’s stories differed radically in meaning from those of epic mythology, which favored devotion, asceticism, and duty. There
756-415: A reconstructed Hindu mythological community. Academic studies of mythology often define mythology as deeply valued stories that explain a society's existence and world order: those narratives of a society's creation, the society's origins and foundations, their god(s), their original heroes, mankind's connection to the "divine", and their narratives of eschatology (what happens in the "after-life"). This
810-627: A survival of the pre-Brahmanic religious tradition. The cult of the Female Principle was a major aspect of Dravidian religion, The concept of Shakti was an integral part of their religion [...] The cult of the Sapta Matrika , or Seven Divine Mothers, which is an integral part of the Shakta religion, may be of Dravidian inspiration. Dravidian influence on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in
864-414: Is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the 3rd century BCE and the 18th century CE, hero stones are found all over India, most of them in southern India. They often carry inscriptions displaying a variety of adornments, including bas relief panels, frieze, and figures on carved stone. Usually they are in the form of a stone monument and may have an inscription at
918-484: Is a very general outline of some of the basic sacred stories with those themes. In its broadest academic sense, the word myth simply means a traditional story. However, many scholars restrict the term "myth" to sacred stories. Folklorists often go further, defining myths as "tales believed as true, usually sacred, set in the distant past or other worlds or parts of the world, and with extra-human, inhuman, or heroic characters". In classical Greek , muthos , from which
972-476: Is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion. Dravidian linguistic influence on early Vedic religion is evident; many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language , the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as one moves from
1026-627: Is at the centre of the villages while a male guardian deity ( Tamil : காவல் கடவுள் , kāval kaṭavuḷ ) has a shrine at the village borders. Nowadays, Amman can be either worshipped alone or as a part of the Vedic pantheon. During the era of the British Raj , several Christian authors in the field of ethnology often drew a comparison between the Dravidian folk religion and the various Indo-Aryan Brahmanical traditions. A later record of
1080-412: Is mentioned in regional literature. The asura is stated to have been born of the bhasma dust (ashes) on the body of Shiva . Pleased at the great devotion of the demon towards him, Shiva agreed to grant a boon of his choice. Bhasmasura sought the power to burn to ashes anybody on whose head he placed his hand. Shiva granted this to him. Bhasmasura became arrogant with the boon, and is stated to have become
1134-677: Is often depicted as having a green complexion in Tamil Hindu tradition, implying her association with nature. The worship of Amman , also called Mariamman , who is thought to have been derived from an ancient mother goddess , is also very common. Kan̲n̲agi , the heroine of the Cilappatikār̲am , is worshipped as Pattin̲i by many Tamils, particularly in Sri Lanka. There are also many followers of Ayyavazhi in Tamil Nadu, mainly in
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#17327729299841188-620: Is placed at the end of row and he is the last dancer to revolve his hands over his head. The Bhasmasura-type pose--with one hand atop the head and the other behind the back--is also common in women's dancing in the Bhojpuri region and, by extension, in Indo-Caribbean society, where it is a typical feature of chutney dancing. A few Indo-Caribbeans claim that this pose relates to the Bhasmasura myth. In Ramakien , The Thai version of
1242-490: The Neolithic people of South Asia before the origin of Indo-Aryan languages. Pope believes that in the pre-historic period the Dravidian religion was a precursor to Shaivism and Shaktism while John B. Magee was of the view that native Dravidian religion prior to 1500 BCE was unclear. Other scholars define it as a non-Vedic part of Hinduism . Henry O. Thompson's definition of Hinduism included Dravidian traditions as one of
1296-469: The Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans that went on to influence Indian civilisation. Scholars do not share a uniform consensus on early Dravidian religion. Some scholars believe that the Dravidian religion was a belief system unique to
1350-594: The Supreme God . Early iconography of Murugan and Sivan and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilisation. The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, thinais , based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam , mentions that each of these thinai had an associated deity such Murugan in Kurinji – the hills and mountains, Thirumal in Mullai –
1404-905: The Village deities of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka , and their subsequent influence in South-east Asia , examples of which include the Mariamman temples in Singapore and Vietnam . Worship of anthills, snakes and other forms of guardian deities and heroes are still worshiped in the Konkan coast , Maharashtra proper and a few other parts of India including North India which traces its origins to ancient Dravidian religion which has been influencing formation of mainstream Hinduism for thousands of years. A hero stone , known as "Natukal" by Tamils , "Gandragallu" by Telugu and "Virgal" by Kannadigas ,
1458-459: The local traditions and tribal religions . Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tholkappiyam , the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu , the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai sheds light on early ancient Dravidian religion. Seyyon (Also known as Murugan ) was glorified as "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favored god of the Tamils". Shiva was seen as
1512-452: The 5th and 13th centuries CE. Veriyattam refers to spirit possession of women, who took part in priestly functions. Under the influence of the god, women sang and danced, but also read the dim past, predicted the future, diagnosed diseases. Twenty two poets of the Sangam age in as many as 40 poems portray Veriyatal. Velan is a reporter and prophet endowed with supernatural powers. Veriyatal had been performed by men as well as women. Among
1566-674: The Bengali literature, such as Mangal-Kāvya , and the Tamil literature , such as Divya Prabandham , Tirumurai and the Five Great Epics . These narratives play a crucial role in the Hindu tradition and are considered real and significant within their cultural and spiritual context, offering profound insights into the beliefs and values of Hinduism. According to Joseph Campbell , the Indus Valley (2600–1900 BCE) may have left traces in
1620-522: The English word myth derives, meant "story, narrative." Hindu mythology does not often have a consistent, monolithic structure. The same myth typically appears in various versions, and can be represented differently across different regional and socio-religious traditions. Many of these legends evolve across these texts, where the character names change or the story is embellished with greater details. According to Suthren Hirst, these myths have been given
1674-676: The Ramayana, Bhasmasura is combined with Ravana (Thotsakan in Ramakien). Hindu mythology Traditional Hindu mythology is the body of myths attributed to, and espoused by, the adherents of the Hindu religion , found in Hindu texts such as the Vedas , the itihasa (the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana , ) the Puranas , and mythological stories specific to
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1728-515: The beliefs and traditions of Hinduism. Artefacts have revealed motifs that are also employed and revered by Hindus today, such as primary male deities worshipped by a ruling elite, mother goddesses, nature spirits, snake worship, as well as the reverence of other theriomorphic (animal-shaped) beings. These themes would be maintained by the Dravidian folk religion even after the decline of its parent civilisation around 1800 BCE. A major factor in
1782-590: The bottom with a narrative of the battle. According to the historian Upinder Singh , the largest concentration of such memorial stones are found in Karnataka . About two thousand six hundred and fifty hero stones, the earliest dated to the 5th century have been discovered in Karnataka. The custom of erecting memorial stones dates back to the Iron Age (1000–600 BCE), though a vast majority were erected between
1836-410: The category of superior demons, who, it stated, had attained the status of deities. Little distinction existed, according to the text, between the deities and the demons. The goddesses were placed within the paradigm of demonolatry, and the scholar identified blood sacrifice as a significant trait of the Dravidian religion. The reverend Samuel Mateer set apart the idolatry of Brahman-centered Hinduism from
1890-545: The colonial administration, titled Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency , described the south Indian faith along the binary lines of deities and demons, essentially categorising the worship of the Dravidian population to "demons", or to "deities who rule[d] such demons to induce their interposition". The text considered the village goddess who guarded the village from disease and calamity in
1944-551: The development of Hinduism was the Vedic religion. The Indo-Aryan migration brought their distinct beliefs to the Indian subcontinent, where the Vedas were composed around 1500 BCE. The Indo-Aryans Vedic pantheon of deities included the chief god Indra , the sun deity Surya , Ushas , as well as Agni . This period saw the composition of commentaries referred to as the Brahmanas . According to Williams, from 900 to 600 BCE,
1998-473: The early Tamils, the practice of erecting hero stones ( nadukkal ) had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 11th century. It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory. A Chola-period Arikandam statue was discovered from Cholapuram village in Sivaganga district depicting the self-decapitation of
2052-586: The forests, and Vendhan in Marutham – the plains and croplands, Kadalon in the Neithal – the coasts and the seas, and Kottravai in Pālai – the deserts. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vāli, who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Throughout Tamilakam , a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance. The king was "the representative of God on earth" and lived in
2106-495: The goddess tradition as "idolatarous". The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess. In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai. Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones, Natukal , had appeared, and it continued for quite
2160-558: The important foundational element. Sjoberg claims that the Dravidian religion influenced Hinduism more than its Indo-Aryan counterpart, Gustav Oppert suggests Dravidian religion was centered on the worship of Goddess as mother, protector of villages and the seven sisters identified with Matrikas. Wilder Theodre Elmore comments that the Dravidian folk religions are not a simple form of animism, but exhibit complex metaphysical concepts . The widespread worship of certain village deities of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu may be argued to reflect
2214-550: The major Puranic texts of the faith, along with the rise of sectarianism, with followers amassing around the cults of Vishnu , Shiva , or Devi . The three denominations within this period help locate in time historical developments within the sectarian communities, the rise and decline of Tantrism and its influence on mainstream mythology, the tendencies in Puranic mythologising of subordinating Vedic gods and past heroes to ever-increasing moral weaknesses, going on to be identified as
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2268-588: The next two periods. The Mahabharata contained two appendices that were extremely important sources for later mythological development, the Bhagavad Gîta and the Harivamsa . According to Williams, the mythology of the Puranas can be broken into three periods (300–500; 500–1000; 1000–1800), or the whole period may simply be referred to as the Hindu Middle Ages. This age saw the composition of
2322-735: The oldest known Indo-Aryan language , the language of the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as we move from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , Sramana and Charvaka . Scholars regard modern Hinduism as
2376-800: The protests of the populace against sacrifices made towards the Vedic gods and rebellions against the Brahmin class led to the embrace of reform by the latter and the composition of the fourth Veda and the Vedanta texts. About half of the Upanishads were mystical and unitive, speaking of experiencing the divine as the one (ekam), while the other half promoted devotion to one or more deities. New gods and goddesses were celebrated, and devotional practices began to be introduced. Elements such as those emerging from Buddhism and Jainism made their "heteroprax" contributions to later Hindu mythology, such as temples, indoor shrines, and rituals modeled after service to
2430-482: The region, are also good indicators of what early Dravidian people believed/practiced. The most popular deity is Murugan , he is known as the patron god of the Tamils and is also called Tamil Kadavul (Tamil God). In Tamil tradition, Murugan is the youngest son and Pillaiyar the eldest son of Shiva . This differs from the North Indian tradition, which represents Murugan as the elder son. The goddess Parvati
2484-592: The religious practices that were derived from Dravidian Folk Religion but were syncretized with Vedic Hinduism . One of the most famous examples is the Cult of Mariamman which can be found across the Tamil Diaspora. The religious tradition is famous for their traditions of body mutilation, walking on hot coals, and Karakattam Puja. In the Caribbean, a unique tradition called Caribbean Shaktism developed as
2538-434: The rudiments of ancient tribal cultures which attached great importance to the worship of heroes and the spirits of ancestors, is a socio-religious ceremony. There are over 400 Theyyams performed, the most spectacular ones are those of Raktha Chamundi, Kari Chamundi, Muchilottu Bhagavathi, Wayanadu Kulaven, Gulikan and Pottan. These are performed in front of shrines, sans stage or curtains. The early character of Tamil religion
2592-485: The southern districts. In addition, there are many temples and devotees of Vishnu , Shiva , Ganapati , and the other Hindu deities. Some other deities that later emerged independently in Tamil tradition include: Angala Devi , Madurai Veeran , Karuppu Sami , Muniandi , Sudalai Madan , Isakki , Devi Kanya Kumari , and Periyachi . In rural Tamil Nadu , many local deities, called aiyyan̲ārs , are believed to be
2646-626: The spirits of local heroes who protect the village from harm. Their worship often centres around nadukkal , stones erected in memory of heroes who died in battle. This form of worship is mentioned frequently in classical literature and appears to be the surviving remnants of an ancient Tamil tradition. The early Dravidian religion constituted a non- Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic . The Agamas are non- vedic in origin and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts or as pre-Vedic compositions. A large portion of these deities continue to be worshipped as
2700-532: The worship of "evil and malignant spirits" that was performed by the indigenous natives of Southern India. The scholar Whitehead concluded that the "village deity" was little more than a petty spirit that tyrannised and protected a local hamlet, inspiring fear due to an ability to inflict diseases and injury to the villagers, not evoking any admiration or morality. Due to the Girmityas , Tamil and Telugu immigration to British, French, and Dutch colonies brought
2754-485: Was celebrative. It embodied an aura of sacral immanence, sensing the sacred in the vegetation, fertility, and color of the land. The summum bonum of the religious experience was expressed in terms of possession by the god, or ecstasy. Into this milieu there immigrated a sobering influence—a growing number of Jain and Buddhist communities and an increasing influx of northerners. The layout of villages can be assumed to be standard across most villages. An Amman (mother goddess)
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#17327729299842808-462: Was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one and was typically associated with Shaktism . Her worship was accepted in the northern parts of India with various names as Devi, Ksetradevata etc. More recent scholarship has been correcting the misrepresentation made by a section of Westerner and Indian Brahmanical scholars in the portrayal of the tradition of the goddess. Western scholars like Denobili portrayed Brahmin as "gentilism" and
2862-493: Was either a revival or emphasis that was placed on the shakti or the cosmic energy of goddesses, a concept that had emerged during the Indus Valley Civilisation. In the contemporary era, the mythologies of the dominant traditions of Vaishnavism , Shaivism , and Shaktism prevail. Several myths were found or invented to make tribals or former "outcastes" Hindus and bring them within the cultural whole of
2916-467: Was the period of the compilation of India’s great epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana . These were central manifestations of the newly developing Hindu synthesis, contributing to a specific Hindu mythology, emphasising divine action on earth in Vishnu 's incarnations and other divine manifestations. The lore of the devas and the asuras expanded. Epic mythology foreshadowed the rich polytheism of
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