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27-590: As early as 732. B.C.E. it was ruled by prince Ukinzer (also known as Mukin-zeri or Nabu-mukin-zeri ) who became a king of Babylon in 732. B.C.E. instead of Nabu-shum-ukin II whom he superseded. Later, Tiglath-pileser III devastated Bit-Amukani for the second time and defeated Mukin-zeri. Shalmaneser III (856-824) inscriptions note that two Chaldean leaders (Mušallim-Marduk of Bīt-Amukāni and Adīnu of Bīt-Dakkūri) carried silver, gold, tin, bronze, elephant tusks, elephant skins, ebony and sissoowood (or meskannu-wood) as

54-453: A celebration of the sowing of barley. All the people in the city would celebrate, including the awilu (upper class), muskena (middle class), wardu (lower class), High Priest, and the King. The priest of Ésagila (Marduk's house) would recite sad prayers with the other priests and the people would answer with equally sad prayers which expressed humanity's fear of the unknown. This fear of

81-556: A hostile manner towards us for their sake? They belong among the Chaldeans! It is the Assyrian king who can show favors towards Babylon, maintaining your civic privileges!” Tukultī-apil-Ešarra's invasion of 731 BC caused Nabû-mukin-zēri to flee Babylon for Šapia, his stronghold in the south, where he remained holed up while the Assyrian forces devastated its surroundings and felled its date palms. The Assyrian king exacted tribute from

108-561: A pivotal role in the development of theories of religion , myth and ritual . While the purpose of the festival remains a point of contention among both historians of religion and Assyriologists , it is certain to have played a pivotal role in the regular setting of an agenda, priorities, and in the overall advancement of Western Civilization as being one of the first regularly occurring forums where proposals for social maintenance or change could consistently be made and crucial issues readily addressed. The modern observance of Akitu began in

135-623: A tribute to the King of Assyria . Though unconfirmed statement, the economy of Bīt-Amūkāni probably relied on producing dates. Tiglath-pileser III described his genocide of Bit-Amukani with words: "the land Bit-Amukani I threshed as with a threshing instrument. I took all of its people (and) its property to Assyria." Although Tiglath-pileser III 's writings testify about conflict with Bīt-Amūkāni, Bīt-Amūkāni never went extinct but actually remained important through later Babylonian history. Sennacherib 's inscriptions note that Bit-Amukani consisted of 39 walled cities and 350 villages. Its capital

162-569: Is a spring festival and New Year 's celebration, held on the first day of the Assyrian and Babylonian Nisan in ancient Mesopotamia and in Assyrian communities around the world, to celebrate the sowing of barley . Akitu originates from the Sumerian spring New Year festival of Zagmuk . The Babylonian festival traditionally started on 4  Nissan , the first month of the year, as

189-502: Is not wholly accurate as a contemporary letter addressed to Tukultī-apil-Ešarra has been preserved which reports that "Mukin-zeri has been killed and Šumu-ukin, his son, has also been killed. The city is conquered." Tukultī-apil-Ešarra did, however, ascend the throne of Babylon, officiating over two successive Akītu festivals. Akitu Akitu or Akitum ( Sumerian : 𒀉 𒆠 𒋾 , romanized:  a-ki-ti ) ( Akkadian : 𒀉 𒆠 𒌈 , romanized:  akītu(m) )

216-575: The Chaldean Amukanu tribe in southern Babylonia, he took advantage of the instability which attended the revolt against Nabû-nādin-zēri and deposed its leader, Nabû-šuma-ukîn II . The fortuitous discovery in 1952 of a cache of diplomatic correspondence in the chancery offices of the Northwest Palace in a room designated as ZT 4 at Kalhu, modern Nimrud , by archaeologists led by Max Mallowan , has shed much light on events of

243-473: The 1960s during the Assyrian intellectual renaissance. Due to political oppression, however, the celebrations were largely private until the 1990s. It is interchangeably referred to as Akitu and Assyrian New Year, and unlike the historical festival it is only celebrated for one day, the first of April. Assyrians continue to observe and celebrate Akitu with parades, picnics, and parties both in Iraq and in

270-583: The Assyrians’ propaganda by attempting to divide their allies. He warned Marduk-apla-iddina of the vicissitude of his uncle Balassu. The Chronicle on the Reigns from Nabû-Nasir to Šamaš-šuma-ukin describes the final outcome, “In the third year, the Assyrian king having come down to Akkad, ravaged Bīt-Amukanu and captured Nabû-mukin-zeri. He subsequently ascended the throne in Babylon himself.” This chronicle

297-599: The Mukin-zēri rebellion. Of the more than three hundred tablets uncovered, a group of more than twenty letters and fragments concerned the events in Babylonia which led to Assyrian intervention and subsequent annexation of the region around 730 BC. They paint a picture of Babylonia riven by splits and rivalries among the various Aramaic , Babylonian and Chaldean factions. Soon after the Amukanite removed his predecessor from

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324-838: The cities of Nippur and Dilbat supported the Assyrian side, the latter city was the subject of reprisals by Mukin-zēri's allies from the religious establishment in Babylon. The Assyrian cavalry commander Iasubaya reported on his unsuccessful efforts to lure the Arameans from the usurper's side and to compel them to leave their city and join the Assyrians in their campaign. The fear engendered by Mukin-zēri sometimes kept Assyrian sympathizers from giving them active aid or accepting their generous amnesty terms. But, while Mukin-zēri's forces were engaged in battle in Buharu, his own subjects ("Akkadians") apparently rustled his sheep. Mukin-zēri countered

351-416: The city would be in constant chaos. The priests would also collect all statues of the gods on this day and bring them inside the temple. Marduk was said to disappear on this day to go fight the goddess Tiamat . Nabu and other gods were said to go out to go rescue Marduk from a prison in the mountains of the universe. It was said that on this day the other gods would give their power to Marduk, making him

378-505: The diaspora. Those celebrating will wear traditional Assyrian clothing and poppies and use the greetings Reesh Shato Brikhto, Reesha D’Sheeta Brikhta or Akitu Breekha. Some people will dress up as ancient Assyrian royalty. Due to its modern alignment with April Fool's Day , the festival is often more lighthearted than its historical counterpart. One tradition, Deqna Nissan or "The Beard of April", involves Assyrian women gathering plants and flowers and fashioning them into

405-413: The first time on the eighth day, this time they will decide the fate of the people of Marduk. In ancient Assyrian philosophy Creation in general was considered as a covenant between heaven and earth as long as a human serves the gods till his death, therefore, gods' happiness isn't complete except if humans are happy as well, thus a human's destiny will be to be given happiness on the condition that he serves

432-505: The gods. So Marduk and the gods renew their covenant with Babylon, by promising the city another cycle of seasons. After the fate of mankind is decided, Marduk returns to the heavens. On the last day of the festival it was believed that the gods returned to the temple. The festival was also adopted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire following the destruction of Babylon . King Sennacherib in 683 BC built an "Akitu house" outside

459-640: The lands, who livest in Eudul, who takest the fallen by the hand; Have pity upon thy city, Babylon Turn thy face towards Esagila, thy temple Give freedom to them that dwell in Babylon, thy wards!" On the second day the high priest would bathe in the Euphrates River before performing special prayers at the temple with the other priests. On the third day special craftsmen would create two puppets made of wood, gold, and precious stones and dress them in red. These puppets were set aside and would be used on

486-612: The month of barley ripening, marks the beginning of the Jewish ecclesiastical year. ( Exodus 13:4; 23:15 ) Since the Babylonian captivity , this month has mainly been called Nisan ( Nehemiah 2:1, Esther 3:7 ) Kha b-Nisan is the name of the spring festival among the Assyrians . The festival is celebrated on April 1, corresponding to the start of the Assyrian calendar . The Assyrian and Babylonian Akitu festival has played

513-672: The other Chaldean tribal leaders, Marduk-apla-iddina II of the Bīt-Yakin, called the “King of the Sealand” in the Assyrian account, Balassu of the Bīt-Dakuri and Nadinu of Larak. Others remained more recalcitrant: Zakiru of the Bīt-Ša’alli was ultimately overthrown, his capital Dur-Illayatu demolished and he was hauled off to Assyria in chains, and Nabû-ušabši of the Bīt-Šilani was impaled. Although

540-401: The sixth day. Meanwhile, the priests and the people would pray before sunset. The king took a statue of Nabu son of Marduk into the temple to be worshipped. The fourth day involved memorials and celebration. The priests would tell creation stories while the people would sing and dance. On this day the public would gather at the river to eat together and celebrate. Meanwhile, the king

567-553: The strong by his glance, Lord of kings, light of men, who dost apportion destinies, O Lord, Babylon is thy seat, Borsippa thy crown The wide heavens are thy body.... Within thine arms thou takest the strong.... Within thy glance thou grantest them grace, Makest them see light so that they proclaim thy power. Lord of the lands, light of the Igigi, who pronouncest blessings; Who would not proclaim thy, yea, thy power? Would not speak of thy majesty, praise thy dominion? Lord of

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594-510: The supreme god. On this day a large procession was held with the king and the gods, adorned with gold and precious stones. It is said that on this day Marduk began celebrating his victory alongside the other gods. He returned to the capital to perform a ritual marriage ceremony to ensure the fertility of the land. The gods return accompanied by their Lord Marduk to meet again in the Destinies Hall "Upshu Ukkina", where they met for

621-467: The throne and seized it for himself, Tukultī-apil-Ešarra directed his efforts to the removal of the usurper using all available means at his disposal. A letter describes the outcome of a mission to Babylon to win over the support of the city's elders. The Assyrian delegation of two officers, Šamaš-bunaya and Nabû-namir, was forced to conduct its diplomacy outside the gates of the city, in full view of Nabû-mukin-zēri's representative, Asinu. “Why do you act in

648-401: The unknown explains why the high priest would head to the Ésagila every day asking for Marduk's forgiveness, begging him to protect Babylon, his holy city, and asking him to have favor on the city. This prayer was called "The Secret Of Ésagila". It reads: "Lord without peer in thy wrath, Lord, gracious king, lord of the lands, Who made salvation for the great gods, Lord, who throwest down

675-687: The walls of Assur . Another Akitu house was built outside Nineveh . The Akitu festival was continued throughout the Seleucid Empire and into the Roman Empire period. At the beginning of the 3rd century, it was still celebrated in Emessa , Syria , in honour of the god Elagabal. The Roman emperor Elagabalus (r. 218-222), who was of Syrian origin, even introduced the festival in Italy ( Herodian , Roman History , 5.6). The new moon of Aviv ,

702-401: Was Sapia (Assyrian Sapīya or Šapīya ). Nabu-mukin-zeri Nabû-mukin-zēri , inscribed AG-DU-NUMUN, also known as Mukin-zēri, was the king of Babylon 731–729 BC. The Ptolemaic Canon gives his name as Χινζηρος. His reign was brought to its eventual end by the capture of the stronghold of Šapia by the forces of the Assyrian king Tukultī-apil-Ešarra III (745–727 BC). The chief of

729-490: Was brought to the temple, where he would show humility before the gods. The high priest would slap the king as a way to further induce humility; the king's tears were seen as a good omen for the coming year. The priests would then reintroduce the king to the public. Before the gods arrived, the day would be filled with commotion. The puppets that were made on the third day would be burned and mock battle would be taking place as well. This commotion signified that without Marduk,

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