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133-543: By the mid-16th century, the city was one of the largest in Poland. Being a royal city , Biecz enjoyed an economic and social Renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries which tapered off into a gradual decline starting during the 17th century. Today, it is a small town with a number of historical monuments. The earliest mentions in historical sources give the name of the town as Beyech, Begech, Begecz, Begesz, Beyecz, Beecz, Beycz, Byecz and Beiech. This allows to establish that

266-594: A " prisoner in the Vatican ". This stand-off, which was spoken of as the Roman Question , was resolved by the 1929 Lateran Treaties , whereby the Holy See acknowledged Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States in return for payment and Italy's recognition of papal sovereignty over Vatican City as a new sovereign and independent state. Catholic missionaries generally supported, and sought to facilitate,

399-584: A legendary bandit called Becz; the Beskids ; and a west and south-west Slavic dialectal word meaning "borough", attested e.g. as Beč/Беч in Serbo-Croatian, borrowed into Romani ( Bech ) and Hungarian ( Bécs ). The Biecz coat of arms depicts Saints Peter and Paul on a field of red. St. Paul, on the right, holds a sword , while St. Peter holds the Keys of Heaven . Between them is the capital letter B,

532-432: A lull in economic and population growth in the latter half of the 14th century, the judiciary and administration of the region were reorganized. The region of Kraków, or Kraków Voivodeship was established, and was further split into six powiats (districts), one of which was the large district of Biecz. Biecz was then designated a judicial center, and was home to two different court systems. Kraków, Nowy Sącz, and Biecz were

665-412: A pharmacy, the newly built Synagogue , and old city hall. In total, 600 residents were left without homes. In 1898, the city's public library, named after Tadeusz Kosciuszko , was opened and quickly became a cultural center. The original library was completely destroyed in the fire, but shortly thereafter was rebuilt and stocked with approximately 8,000 volumes. While World War I had little impact on

798-460: A preparation area for attacks on enemy states and a rallying point for forces resisting invasion. The stronghold also served as a center for trade due to its position at the crossroads between east–west and north–south trade routes between Red Ruthenia and Hungary . Biecz was granted its Magdeburg rights around the year 1257 CE, probably by Prince Bolesław V the Chaste of Kraków. The exact year

931-469: A reference to the city name. The coat of arms dates back to the 16th century, when official seals depicting the images of Saints Peter and Paul and the letter B first appeared. The seals were used with more regularity during the 17th and 18th centuries. On 12 July 1990, the Municipal Council officially adopted the use of the coat of arms. The area of Biecz has been settled periodically since

1064-456: A subsequent increase in the conservation and protection of historic monuments. As a result, Biecz soon became the focus of interest of many art historians, professors, and conservators . On 12 May 1903, a great fire broke out in Biecz, razing half of the city. According to historical documents, destroyed buildings included twenty Jewish stores, thirty Catholic homes, the tax collector's offices,

1197-521: A substantial reformation had recently occurred under the guidance of Friar Hipolit Łowicjan and Father Piotr Zielonacki. In 1651 the Franciscan monastery was moved from its original location on the Ropa River to a new location closer to the city center. Numerous public and private buildings were built during the 15th and 16th centuries. On 25 July 1395, Queen Jadwiga issued building orders for

1330-578: A variety of historical circumstances. In the 16th century, the Reformation led to the formation of separate, Protestant groups. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its teachings on sexuality , its doctrine against ordaining women , and its handling of sexual abuse cases involving clergy. Catholic (from Greek : καθολικός , romanized :  katholikos , lit.   'universal')

1463-487: Is City Hall. The original bell tower was constructed in 1569, and the rest of the structure was built between 1569 and 1580. The structure was built with funds donated by Marcin Kromer . Once construction on the tower was completed, the tradition of trumpeting the hejnał was begun. The hejnał was played every morning, noon, and evening, coinciding with the closing of the city gates, as well as in times of emergency. In 1523,

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1596-487: Is Corpus Christi Church ( Kościół Bożego Ciała ). The oldest surviving structures date back to 1480, but the register of monuments of the Kingdom of Poland show that construction had already begun by 1326. The main nave was constructed during the 15th century and completed by 1519. The side chapels were built between 1521 and 1560, and the main altar was added in 1604. Another important monument constructed during this period

1729-473: Is believed that Biecz and its suburbs had at least 3,000 residents. By the mid-16th century, Biecz had a population of 3,700, the highest population the city achieved during the Middle Ages. Starting in the 17th century, Biecz went into a decline, its population slipping to approximately 1800 people in the first half of the 17th century, and then to 462 inhabitants in 1662. Starting in the mid-17th century,

1862-540: Is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The massive Islamic invasions of the mid-7th century began a long struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The Byzantine Empire soon lost the lands of the eastern patriarchates of Jerusalem , Alexandria and Antioch and was reduced to that of Constantinople,

1995-475: Is likely that this is the invention of a 19th-century author, as trade schools did not exist during the Middle Ages . Nevertheless, the legend is a popular one, and some historical scholars have even devoted time to study the possibility. As the population grew, so did the variety of trade goods and handicrafts produced in the city. In the 14th century, there were 30 different types of goods produced in

2128-685: Is the bishop of Rome , known as the pope ( Latin : papa , lit.   'father'), whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See ( Sancta Sedes in Latin). In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services. The Catholic Church has been described as

2261-491: Is the universal [katholike] Church." In the Catechetical Lectures ( c.  350 ) of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem , the name "Catholic Church" was used to distinguish it from other groups that also called themselves "the church". The "Catholic" notion was further stressed in the edict De fide Catolica issued 380 by Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of

2394-514: Is unknown, as the royal edict granting these rights has not been preserved. These rights were confirmed by King Casimir III the Great in 1363, and then later by Queen Jadwiga . Trade relations with Bardejov across the Carpathians were also formalized during the 14th century. During the late 13th century, King Wenceslaus II gifted the town to Jan Muskata , bishop of Kraków, in exchange for

2527-651: The Pax Romana made travelling safe. The empire encouraged the spread of a common culture with Greek roots, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood. Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see Idolatry ). The Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life, which caused non-Christians—including government authorities—to fear that

2660-809: The Byzantine–Seljuk Wars , which caused Urban to launch the First Crusade aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the Holy Land to Christian control. In the 11th century , strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the East–West Schism, partially due to conflicts over papal authority. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved

2793-767: The Church of the East also shared in this communion, as did the Oriental Orthodox Churches before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451; all separated primarily over differences in Christology . The Eastern Catholic Churches, who have a combined membership of approximately 18 million, represent a body of Eastern Christians who returned or remained in communion with the pope during or following these schisms for

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2926-721: The Code of Canon Law (1983). "Catholic Church" is also used in the documents of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), the Council of Trent (1545–1563), and numerous other official documents. The New Testament , in particular the Gospels , records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the Twelve Apostles and his Great Commission of

3059-666: The Council of Nicaea declared heretical . The resulting religious discord between Germanic rulers and Catholic subjects was avoided when, in 497, Clovis I , the Frankish ruler, converted to orthodox Catholicism, allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries. The Visigoths in Spain followed his lead in 589, and the Lombards in Italy in the course of the 7th century. Western Christianity , particularly through its monasteries ,

3192-546: The Dom Barianów-Rokickich was built. The building was owned by Marcin Kromer and served as a pharmacy until the 17th century. Other important period buildings include the 1519 Kromer House, which never actually had anything to do with Marcin Kromer, and the Castle, built in the first half of the 16th century. Biecz was a royal city , and the center of local administrative, judicial, and military authority from

3325-733: The Edict of Thessalonica made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire , a position that within the diminishing territory of the Byzantine Empire would persist until the empire itself ended in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, while elsewhere the church was independent of the empire, as became particularly clear with the East–West Schism . During the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils , five primary sees emerged, an arrangement formalized in

3458-766: The English Reformation and the eventual development of Anglicanism . The Reformation contributed to clashes between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V and his allies. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg but continued tensions produced a far graver conflict—the Thirty Years' War —which broke out in 1618. In France, a series of conflicts termed

3591-607: The French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots (French Calvinists ) and the forces of the French Catholic League , which were backed and funded by a series of popes. This ended under Pope Clement VIII , who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes granting civil and religious toleration to French Protestants. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became

3724-722: The Great Sejm adopted the Free Royal Cities Act (full title: "Miasta nasze królewskie wolne w państwach Rzeczypospolitej" - "Our Free Royal Cities in the States of the Commonwealth "), included as Article III into the Constitution of May 3, 1791 . The law granted a number of privileges for the residents of royal cities. Many of these privileges and rights have already been enjoyed by major royal cities, and

3857-543: The Immaculate Conception as a dogma in the Catholic Church . In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements, striking a blow to the rival position of conciliarism . Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church , The Italian unification of

3990-712: The Italian Peninsula , imprisoning Pope Pius VI , who died in captivity. Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801 . The end of the Napoleonic Wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States . In 1854, Pope Pius IX , with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed

4123-489: The Neolithic period, though the first mentions of a named settlement date back to the 11th century. This early medieval town was approximately 500 metres (1,600 ft) from the modern one. By the 12th century, the town had become a castellany , and by the mid-14th century, it had been granted rights based on Magdeburg Law . Biecz enjoyed a cultural and economic renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries. Beginning in

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4256-462: The Nicene Creed . The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission , that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles , and that the pope is the successor to Saint Peter , upon whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith taught by

4389-552: The Polish People's Republic , became the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. His 26 1/2-year pontificate was one of the longest in history, and was credited with hastening the fall of communism in Europe. John Paul II sought to evangelize an increasingly secular world . He travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries, and used television and radio as means of spreading the church's teachings. He also emphasized

4522-875: The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, when those who ceased to be in communion became known as Protestants. While the Roman Church has been used to describe the pope's Diocese of Rome since the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages (6th–10th century), Roman Catholic Church has been applied to the whole church in the English language since the Protestant Reformation in

4655-616: The Roman Catholic Church , is the largest Christian church , with 1.28 to 1.39 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2024. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions and has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization . The church consists of 24 sui iuris churches , including the Latin Church and 23 Eastern Catholic Churches , which comprise almost 3,500 dioceses and eparchies around

4788-674: The Roman Empire , when establishing the state church of the Roman Empire . Since the East–West Schism of 1054, the Eastern Orthodox Church has taken the adjective Orthodox as its distinctive epithet; its official name continues to be the Orthodox Catholic Church. The Latin Church was described as Catholic , with that description also denominating those in communion with the Holy See after

4921-521: The Szpital św. Ducha (Hospital of the Holy Ghost). The writ appropriated a nearby folwark , several fish ponds, and the remnants of a plaza that had been destroyed by fire in 1388. Funded entirely by tax revenue, the hospital's budget was the largest in the country. Over the years, many churches have been located in Biecz, the most ever being seven within the city limits. The most prominent of these

5054-640: The Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Society of Friends (1938). The Society of Friends soon established the Muzeum Ziemi Bieckiej (Museum of Bieczan Lands). In 1934, the Ropa River flooded, washing away railway embankments and all the houses built on the banks or valleys of the River. The floodwaters rose to unprecedented heights. Royal city In the history of Poland , a royal city or royal town ( Polish : miasto królewskie )

5187-669: The Tridentine Mass as found in the Roman Missal of 1962, which he titled the "Extraordinary Form". Citing the frailties of advanced age, Benedict resigned in 2013, becoming the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years. Pope Francis, the current pope of the Catholic Church, became in 2013 the first pope from the Americas, the first from the Southern Hemisphere , and the first Pope from outside Europe since

5320-418: The University of Oxford , University of Paris , and University of Bologna . Higher education before then had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools, led by monks and nuns . Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century CE. These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. The university

5453-444: The dignity of work and natural rights of labourers to have fair wages and safe conditions in Laborem exercens . He emphasized several church teachings, including moral exhortations against abortion, euthanasia , and against widespread use of the death penalty, in Evangelium Vitae . Pope Benedict XVI , elected in 2005, was known for upholding traditional Christian values against secularization , and for increasing use of

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5586-422: The 12th century until 1783. In the 17th century, the district of Biecz encompassed eleven cities and 264 villages, as well as three castles, the royal court, and several royal residences. Kings from both the Piast and Jagiellon dynasties made use of these royal residences. The royal residences remained in use by Polish monarchs until John II Casimir Vasa , who passed through the city while on his campaign to drive

5719-425: The 13th century, the nominative stem was levelled to the oblique stem Biejcz- (e.g. Loc. w Biejczu "in Biejecz"), giving Biejcz without stem alternations (attested as late as the 17th century) and then the current form, Biecz . Apart from that, there are a plethora of other theories, including obvious folk etymologies , linking the name e.g. to a Carpathian tribe called Biessi , mentioned by Ptolemy ;

5852-422: The 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France during a period known as the Avignon Papacy . The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the pope returned to Rome, but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism , with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa. The matter

5985-478: The 17th century, the town was beset by a number of natural disasters, including flooding, fires, and a plague which killed all but 30 inhabitants. The town suffered heavy population losses during World War II, including a public massacre of 200 local Jews in the market square in 1942. Biecz is situated in an area which was inhabited as early as the Neolithic period, or about 4500 BCE . Stone artifacts dating to this period have been excavated within Biecz proper and

6118-414: The 1860s incorporated the Papal States, including Rome itself from 1870, into the Kingdom of Italy , thus ending the papacy's temporal power . In response, Pope Pius IX excommunicated King Victor Emmanuel II , refused payment for the land, and rejected the Italian Law of Guarantees , which granted him special privileges. To avoid placing himself in visible subjection to the Italian authorities, he remained

6251-522: The 1960s, Pope John XXIII convened the Second Vatican Council , which ushered in radical change to church ritual and practice, and in the later 20th century, the long reign of Pope John Paul II contributed to the fall of communism in Europe, and a new public and international role for the papacy. From the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticized for its doctrines on sexuality , its inability to ordain women , and its handling of sexual abuse cases . Pope Pius X (1903–1914) renewed

6384-408: The 21st century. Pope Gregory VII further initiated the Gregorian Reforms regarding the independence of the clergy from secular authority. This led to the Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman Emperors , over which had the authority to appoint bishops and popes. In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against renewed Muslim invasions in

6517-416: The Americas, Asia and Oceania by explorers, conquistadors, and missionaries, as well as by the transformation of societies through the socio-political mechanisms of colonial rule. Pope Alexander VI had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal and the ensuing patronato system allowed state authorities, not the Vatican, to control all clerical appointments in

6650-402: The Byzantine Empire lost to the Lombards the city of Ravenna from which it governed the small fragments of Italy, including Rome, that acknowledged its sovereignty. The fall of Ravenna meant that confirmation by a no longer existent exarch was not asked for during the election in 752 of Pope Stephen II and that the papacy was forced to look elsewhere for a civil power to protect it. In 754, at

6783-405: The Catholic and Orthodox churches. Several eastern churches reunited, forming the majority of the Eastern Catholic Churches . The Age of Discovery beginning in the 15th century saw the expansion of Western Europe's political and cultural influence worldwide. Because of the prominent role the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal played in Western colonialism, Catholicism was spread to

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6916-422: The Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The resulting persecutions were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalized in the 4th century. In 313, Emperor Constantine I 's Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, and in 330 Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople , modern Istanbul, Turkey . In 380

7049-447: The Crown considered revenues generated by these administrative regions a significant source of income. The Biecz starostwo had a strong economic base; by 1581 it encompassed 23 villages and Crown-operated folwarks . Until 1641 the starosta had an office in the Franciscan monastery; after 1641 his office was moved to a designated administrative building. In 1624, the reformed Franciscan order arrived in Biecz from Zakliczyn , where

7182-457: The Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV of France , which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. As the papacy resisted pushes for Gallicanism , the French Revolution of 1789 shifted power to the state, caused the destruction of churches, the establishment of a Cult of Reason , and the martyrdom of nuns during the Reign of Terror . In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte 's General Louis-Alexandre Berthier invaded

7315-401: The European imperial powers' conquest of Africa during the late nineteenth century. According to the historian of religion Adrian Hastings , Catholic missionaries were generally unwilling to defend African rights or encourage Africans to see themselves as equals to Europeans, in contrast to Protestant missionaries, who were more willing to oppose colonial injustices. During the 20th century,

7448-453: The Hogenberg etching above. Though no longer in use, these gibbets can still be seen today. Biecz executioners also performed executions in nearby villages for a fee. According to financial records, in the year 1450 executioners were sent to the towns of Jasło , Rymanów , Dukla , Dębowiec , Rzeszów , and Wojnicz . The sheer number of executions enacted gave rise to the popular legend that there existed an executioners' school in Biecz. It

7581-447: The Holy See, or the Apostolic See (meaning the see of the apostle Peter). Directly serving the pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church. The pope is also sovereign of Vatican City, a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that

7714-402: The Pope's insistence on public neutrality and diplomatic language has become a source of much criticism and debate. Nevertheless, in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews. Israeli historian Pinchas Lapide estimated that Catholic rescue of Jews amounted to somewhere between 700,000 and 860,000 people. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church

7847-410: The Reformation, which gave birth to the great majority of Protestant denominations and also crypto-Protestantism within the Catholic Church. Meanwhile, Henry VIII petitioned Pope Clement VII for a declaration of nullity concerning his marriage to Catherine of Aragon . When this was denied, he had the Acts of Supremacy passed to make himself Supreme Head of the Church of England , spurring

7980-499: The Second World War, also because they had powerful supporters from the Vatican. The judgment of Pius XII is made more difficult by the sources, because the church archives for his tenure as nuncio, cardinal secretary of state and pope are in part closed or not yet processed. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent, four centuries before. Initiated by Pope John XXIII, this ecumenical council modernized

8113-494: The Swedes from Poland . The castle served as a center of economic exchange for many centuries, mainly due to its favorable location at the intersection of north–south and east–west trade routes. In 1505, Alexander Jagiellon strengthened trade relations with Hungary . As a result, the majority of Hungarian exports to Polish territories and beyond were sent through Biecz. These goods include iron, copper, lead, salt, wool, and large quantities of Hungarian wine . Initially this wine

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8246-484: The War, and established aid networks to help victims, but he secretly assisted the anti-Hitler resistance and shared intelligence with the Allies. His first encyclical Summi Pontificatus (1939) expressed dismay at the 1939 Invasion of Poland and reiterated Catholic teaching against racism. He expressed concern against race killings on Vatican Radio , and intervened diplomatically to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries from 1942 to 1944. But

8379-458: The apostles, instructing them to continue his work. The book Acts of Apostles , tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire. The Catholic Church teaches that its public ministry began on Pentecost , occurring fifty days following the date Christ is believed to have resurrected . At Pentecost, the apostles are believed to have received the Holy Spirit, preparing them for their mission in leading

8512-400: The apostles, preserving the faith infallibly through scripture and sacred tradition as authentically interpreted through the magisterium of the church. The Roman Rite and others of the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic liturgies , and institutes such as mendicant orders , enclosed monastic orders and third orders reflect a variety of theological and spiritual emphases in

8645-421: The area. Biecz is first referenced by name in church documents written by Thietmar of Merseburg c. 1012–1018. In 1184, Casimir II the Just gave the land as tithes to St. Florian of Kraków. Documents dating to 1243 and 1257 make reference to specific castellans : Nicolaus de Beycz and Bronisius de Begech. The castle was a strategic military stronghold due to its location near the Polish border. It served as

8778-410: The areas under his control definitively established a form of caesaropapism , in which "he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church", re-established imperial power over Rome and other parts of the West, initiating the period termed the Byzantine Papacy (537–752), during which

8911-446: The beginning of the 16th century, Biecz was one of the largest Polish cities both in area and population. Beginning in the middle of that century, however, Biecz fell victim to a number of natural disasters which devastated both its population and infrastructure. In 1543, 110 inhabitants died from a plague; a second plague in 1572 claimed 1,500 victims. In 1600 Biecz suffered yet another plague, which struck again in 1622. This plague struck

9044-451: The bishops of Rome, or popes, required approval from the emperor in Constantinople or from his representative in Ravenna for consecration, and most were selected by the emperor from his Greek-speaking subjects, resulting in a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions in art as well as liturgy. Most of the Germanic tribes who in the following centuries invaded the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity in its Arian form, which

9177-456: The castle in 1961. Excavated Byzantine and Roman coins dating from the 2nd to the 5th centuries indicate that the area was part of an important trade route for these empires. A castle was erected as early as the 9th century, a small settlement quickly developing around its perimeter. This early castle was demolished by King Casimir IV Jagiellon in the 13th century and replaced with a much larger structure, now one of three surviving castles in

9310-424: The castle of Biecz from September 1311 to April 1312. Due to the importance granted to the city during this period, Biecz was initially considered the capital city of Poland. Initially the town was protected by earthworks and ditches. Walls were first constructed during the 14th century, as evidenced by a royal edict issued by King Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila) in 1399 ordering all able-bodied men to assist in

9443-496: The church's approach to ecumenism , and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra aetate . The council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the " Spirit of Vatican II " such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng said that Vatican II had "not gone far enough" to change church policies. Traditionalist Catholics , such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre , however, strongly criticized

9576-517: The church's global reach continued to grow, despite the rise of anti-Catholic authoritarian regimes and the collapse of European Empires, accompanied by a general decline in religious observance in the West. Under Popes Benedict XV , and Pius XII , the Holy See sought to maintain public neutrality through the World Wars, acting as peace broker and delivering aid to the victims of the conflicts. In

9709-687: The church. Of its seven sacraments , the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass . The church teaches that through consecration by a priest , the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ . The Virgin Mary is venerated as the Perpetual Virgin , Mother of God , and Queen of Heaven ; she is honoured in dogmas and devotions . Catholic social teaching emphasizes voluntary support for

9842-592: The church. The Catholic Church teaches that the college of bishops , led by the bishop of Rome are the successors to the Apostles. In the account of the Confession of Peter found in the Gospel of Matthew , Christ designates Peter as the "rock" upon which Christ's church will be built. The Catholic Church considers the bishop of Rome, the pope, to be the successor to Saint Peter . Some scholars state Peter

9975-422: The church. There are three levels of clergy: the episcopate, composed of bishops who hold jurisdiction over a geographic area called a diocese or eparchy ; the presbyterate, composed of priests ordained by bishops and who work in local dioceses or religious orders; and the diaconate, composed of deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church

10108-536: The city as trade waned, began to decline. Contemporary record-keeping shows a significant reduction in the stock of wine in the middle of the 17th century. As time went on, the wine trade dwindled further before eventually disappearing completely. On 4 April 1770, Kierkor, the commander of a troop of 100 cavalry, mounted an attack from Biecz against the Imperial Russian Army in Siepietnica under

10241-561: The city began to decline due to the stationing of foreign troops, alterations in trade routes, and numerous natural disasters. Further devastation was caused by the Deluge , a series of disastrous wars with Sweden that left the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in ruins. The invading Swedes razed houses, farms, peasant buildings, hospitals, and three wooden churches on the outskirts of the city. The wine trade, which had sustained

10374-570: The city proper, a number combatants who participated in the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive are buried in cemeteries throughout the municipality. There are five numbered cemeteries in Biecz wherein soldiers of World War I are buried: The interwar period heralded new growth in Biecz. A number of societies were founded during this period, including the Związek Młodzieży Polskiej Polish Youth Union (1920) and

10507-532: The city, most of which are cloth or canvas goods. Economic prosperity gave rise to a mentality that valued education, which prompted the 1528 opening of a new school building. In the 15th and 16th centuries, 150 Bieczan students studied at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, then still known as Akademia Krakowska . Most of these students returned to Biecz after completing their studies. Biecz

10640-547: The command of Iwan Drewicz  [ pl ] (Russian: Иван Григорьевич Древич). The cavalry were overwhelmed, and the Russian forces pursued the retreating troops and plundered Biecz. The golden age of Biecz ended with the partition of Poland , after which the city was under Austrian rule . After the 1783 liquidation of the District of Biecz, the eastern portion of city hall, which was devoted to district administration,

10773-867: The conflict. Catholic clergy played a leading role in the government of the fascist Slovak State , which collaborated with the Nazis, copied their anti-Semitic policies, and helped them carry out the Holocaust in Slovakia. Jozef Tiso , the President of the Slovak State and a Catholic priest, supported his government's deportation of Slovakian Jews to extermination camps. The Vatican protested against these Jewish deportations in Slovakia and in other Nazi puppet regimes including Vichy France , Croatia, Bulgaria , Italy and Hungary. Around 1943, Adolf Hitler planned

10906-522: The council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments", among other issues. The teaching on the morality of contraception also came under scrutiny; after a series of disagreements, Humanae vitae upheld the church's prohibition of all forms of contraception. In 1978, Pope John Paul II , formerly Archbishop of Kraków in

11039-435: The development of the role of the papacy in the subsequent church". These roles, Brown says, "contributed enormously to seeing the bishop of Rome, the bishop of the city where Peter died and where Paul witnessed the truth of Christ, as the successor of Peter in care for the church universal". Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's network of roads and waterways facilitated travel, and

11172-554: The driving force behind the Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant movement. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic teachings such as transubstantiation and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation. In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world, in part through missionaries and imperialism , although its hold on European populations declined due to

11305-702: The early and mid-16th century as the main location of the Sejm , and then the main Crown Tribunal location alongside Lublin, thus one of the two judiciary capitals of Poland), Grodno ( de facto capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 1580s and then the general sejm location alongside Warsaw), Bydgoszcz and Kalisz (temporary locations of the Crown Tribunal), and Sandomierz , Przemyśl , Kazimierz . On April 18, 1791,

11438-735: The eighth-century Gregory III . Francis has made efforts to further close Catholicism's estrangement with the Eastern churches. His installation was attended by Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the first time since the Great Schism of 1054 that the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople has attended a papal installation, while he also met Patriarch Kirill of Moscow , head of

11571-638: The empire's capital. As a result of Islamic domination of the Mediterranean , the Frankish state, centred away from that sea, was able to evolve as the dominant power that shaped the Western Europe of the Middle Ages. The battles of Toulouse and Poitiers halted the Islamic advance in the West and the failed siege of Constantinople halted it in the East. Two or three decades later, in 751,

11704-674: The expansion and repair of the city walls. The walls were extended in the 16th century and again in the 17th, when seventeen towers were constructed to aid in the fortification and protection of the town. King Casimir III the Great took great interest in the city. In 1361 he gave orders for the construction of weighing scales and textile mills , and established a number of fairs, which were major sources of income. In addition, he granted all Biecz business an exemption from taxation and tariffs , as well as economic benefit from surrounding villages. Biecz flourished under Jagiellonian rule. The crown's encouragement of growth and trade, as well as

11837-512: The final breach. In this age great gothic cathedrals in France were an expression of popular pride in the Christian faith. In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán . The studia conventualia and studia generalia of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of church-sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of Charlemagne at Aachen , into

11970-529: The growth of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment. From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Catholic Church over Western society. In the 18th century, writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of

12103-531: The independence of papal office by abolishing the veto of Catholic powers in papal elections, and his successors Benedict XV (1914–1922) and Pius XI (1922–1939) concluded the modern independence of the Vatican State within Italy. Benedict XV was elected at the outbreak of the First World War . He attempted to mediate between the powers and established a Vatican relief office, to assist victims of

12236-429: The inflow of capital to Biecz contributed positively to improving the quality of life. In 1882, Biecz constructed its first railroad station, and in 1889, its first credit union. Slowly education and culture returned to the city. In 1891 a new parochial school building was constructed, and in 1912 an all-girls school was opened. The 19th century brought with it an increased awareness of the historical value of buildings, and

12369-602: The kidnapping of the Pope and his internment in Germany. He gave SS General Wolff a corresponding order to prepare for the action. While Pope Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews during the Holocaust , the church has also been accused of having encouraged centuries of antisemitism by its teachings and not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Many Nazi criminals escaped overseas after

12502-591: The largest Eastern Orthodox church, in 2016; this was reported as the first such high-level meeting between the two churches since the Great Schism of 1054. In 2017 during a visit in Egypt , Pope Francis reestablished mutual recognition of baptism with the Coptic Orthodox Church . The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity , led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within

12635-550: The late 16th century. Further, some will refer to the Latin Church as Roman Catholic in distinction from the Eastern Catholic churches. "Roman Catholic" has occasionally appeared also in documents produced both by the Holy See, and notably used by certain national episcopal conferences and local dioceses. The name Catholic Church for the whole church is used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1990) and

12768-675: The law effectively equalized all royal cities in this respect. It also includes some rights earlier enjoyed only by szlachta . Examples of Polish royal castles and residences found in former royal cities of Poland: The historic old towns of Kraków , Warsaw , Toruń , Vilnius and Lviv are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites , and additionally the old towns of Gdańsk , Kazimierz Dolny , Lublin , Przemyśl , Sandomierz and Tykocin are designated Historic Monuments of Poland . Examples of Polish royal cities historic centers include: Catholic Church God Schools Relations with: The Catholic Church , also known as

12901-541: The locations of the high courts that dealt with the enforcement of the Magdeburg laws as established in 1374 by the Privilege of Košice . Little is known about the establishment of the Biecz starostwo during the late 14th century. Nothing is known about the first recorded starosta but his name: Drago. The starostwo were Crown lands administered by the starosta , and established mainly for economic purposes as

13034-577: The mid-6th century by Emperor Justinian I as the pentarchy of Rome, Constantinople , Antioch , Jerusalem and Alexandria . In 451 the Council of Chalcedon , in a canon of disputed validity, elevated the see of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome". From c.  350  – c.  500 , the bishops, or popes, of Rome, steadily increased in authority through their consistent intervening in support of orthodox leaders in theological disputes, which encouraged appeals to them. Emperor Justinian , who in

13167-470: The new administration provided a certain stability. However, in 1783, the city was forced to defend itself against invaders, forcing the administrative and judicial branches of government to shut down. The last Biecz castle still in service as a military stronghold fell to the invaders, who laid siege to the city. Effectively cut off from communication with the rest of the Austrian partition , and severed from

13300-741: The new colonies. In 1521 the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines . Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India, China, and Japan. The French colonization of the Americas beginning in the 16th century established a Catholic francophone population and forbade non-Catholics to settle in Quebec . In 1415, Jan Hus

13433-458: The numerous visual artists sponsored by the church. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization ". In Western Christendom , the first universities in Europe were established by monks. Beginning in the 11th century, several older cathedral schools became universities, such as

13566-406: The oldest multinational organization in the world. The hierarchy of the Catholic Church is headed by the pope, currently Pope Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 by a papal conclave . The office of the pope is known as the papacy . The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter . His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called

13699-472: The original form of the name was Biejecz , apparently a regular possessive adjective derived from the diminutive personal name Biejek (not attested, but easily reconstructable from Biejecz and perhaps Biejków ). The age of the town makes further derivation from Bieniedzikt improbable, leading linguists to hypothesize that the ultimate source is Biezdziad or other Old Slavic name beginning in Bie- . In

13832-624: The pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives. The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals , such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages . While the famous Saint Peter's Basilica is located in Vatican City, above the traditional site of Saint Peter's tomb , the papal cathedral for the Diocese of Rome is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran , located within

13965-412: The practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations". It intended to engage the church more closely with the present world ( aggiornamento ), which was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows". In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to

14098-683: The preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as Columbanus and Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe. The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilization from Late Antiquity to the dawn of the modern age. It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music. Renaissance figures such as Raphael , Michelangelo , Leonardo da Vinci , Botticelli , Fra Angelico , Tintoretto , Titian , Bernini and Caravaggio are examples of

14231-462: The prominent universities of Europe. Scholastic theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas' Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation. A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked

14364-590: The schism was reconciled, unresolved issues would lead to further division. In the 11th century, the efforts of Hildebrand of Sovana led to the creation of the College of Cardinals to elect new popes, starting with Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061 . When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as Pope Gregory VII . The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into

14497-569: The sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy . The Catholic Church operates tens of thousands of Catholic schools, universities and colleges , hospitals , and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. The Catholic Church has profoundly influenced Western philosophy , culture , art , literature , music , law , and science . Catholics live all over

14630-511: The subject of artworks created by several artists, including Tadeusz Rybkowski  [ pl ] , Józef Mehoffer , and Helena Krajewska  [ pl ] . Biecz was the subject of Miron Białoszewski 's tapestry Średniowieczny gobelin o Bieczu . The economic development of Biecz resulted in a population boom. A census conducted by the judiciary from 1388 to 1398 lists the names of 515 heads of households. Taking into account that contemporary families consisted on average of six people, it

14763-543: The surrounding area. A hoard of copper alloy weapons and jewellery dating from the early Bronze Age was found in a bog in the vicinity of Biecz in the nineteenth century. Now in the British Museum , the hoard is famous for its rare conical helmet or Kegelhelm . During the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age , the area was home to the Lusatian culture . Pottery fragments were uncovered during archaeological work at

14896-521: The term "bishop of Rome" to the most prominent members of the clergy in the earlier period and also to Peter himself. On this basis protestant scholars Oscar Cullmann , Henry Chadwick , and Bart D. Ehrman question whether there was a formal link between Peter and the modern papacy. Raymond E. Brown also says that it is anachronistic to speak of Peter in terms of local bishop of Rome, but that Christians of that period would have looked on Peter as having "roles that would contribute in an essential way to

15029-598: The territory where he would later found Nowy Sącz . According to contemporary documents, the transfer of power occurred on 24 March 1303 in Prague . During the fall of 1306, ownership of the town and castle were peacefully transferred to the control of Władysław I the Elbow-high . From this point forward, the town and municipality were under the control of the Polish crown. Władysław I based his campaign to unify Poland from

15162-461: The town's favorable location, were major influences on Biecz's rapid growth during this period. Under the rule of King Casimir IV Jagiellon , the town built its first municipal water supply . Inhabitants were also granted a number of privileges, such as relief from duties on various imported commodities. Additionally, merchants entering Polish territory were required to pass through Biecz, wherein taxes and other import tariffs were levied. This practice

15295-400: The traditional Hungarian trade routes, the city withstood the invasion solely due to the recent renovation and strengthening of the city walls. Biecz began to recover economically beginning in the late 19th century. During this period, the petrochemical industry began to develop in the vicinity, which contributed to a number of personal fortunes through the years. In 1879, the first oil well

15428-649: The urgent request of Pope Stephen, the Frankish king Pepin the Short conquered the Lombards. He then gifted the lands of the former exarchate to the pope, thus initiating the Papal States . Rome and the Byzantine East would delve into further conflict during the Photian schism of the 860s, when Photius criticized the Latin west of adding of the filioque clause after being excommunicated by Nicholas I . Though

15561-620: The war and reunite families. The interwar Pope Pius XI modernized the papacy, appointing 40 indigenous bishops and concluding fifteen concordats, including the Lateran Treaty with Italy which founded the Vatican City State . His successor Pope Pius XII led the Catholic Church through the Second World War and early Cold War . Like his predecessors, Pius XII sought to publicly maintain Vatican neutrality in

15694-471: The workshops, nearly wiping out the tradesman population. 52 craftsmen survived. The same occurred in the next plague, which struck in 1652. In 1721, Biecz suffered what is now known as the great plague, which devastated the populace and spared approximately thirty people. In 1776, the ruling Habsburg dynasty sold the city to the Siemieńscy family, effectively revoking Biecz's status as a royal city. Initially

15827-582: The world . The pope , who is the bishop of Rome, is the chief pastor of the church. The Diocese of Rome , known as the Holy See , is the central governing authority of the church. The administrative body of the Holy See, the Roman Curia , has its principal offices in Vatican City , which is a small, independent city-state and enclave within the city of Rome , of which the pope is head of state . The core beliefs of Catholicism are found in

15960-478: The world through missions , immigration , diaspora , and conversions . Since the 20th century, the majority have resided in the Global South , partially due to secularization in Europe and North America. The Catholic Church shared communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church until the East–West Schism in 1054, disputing particularly the authority of the pope . Before the Council of Ephesus in AD 431,

16093-487: Was a major factor in preserving classical civilization , with its art (see Illuminated manuscript ) and literacy. Through his Rule , Benedict of Nursia ( c.  480 –543), one of the founders of Western monasticism , exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Catholic Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through

16226-552: Was a poor trade good, as the liquor was so expensive that only the magnates could afford to buy it. Over time, however, it became a more common drink, and increasing quantities were exported. On 17 January 1618, the wine cellars built by Casimir the Great had a stock of 331 barrels of Hungarian wine. As the major defensive stronghold of the region, Biecz was required to combat manifestations of lawlessness. Marauders would frequently attack trade caravans, their major targets being those carrying large quantities of Hungarian wine. The issue

16359-554: Was an urban settlement within the crown lands ( Polish : królewszczyzna ). The most influential royal cities enjoyed voting rights during the free election period in Poland (1572–1791). These cities were Gdańsk , Warsaw , Kraków , Poznań , Lwów , Wilno , Toruń , Lublin , Kamieniec and Elbląg . Other important royal cities included Gniezno (ecclesiastical capital of Poland and former capital of early medieval Poland), Płock (former capital of medieval Poland), Piotrków (second most important political center of Poland in

16492-477: Was at its most intense in Poland , and Catholic resistance to Nazism took various forms. Some 2,579 Catholic clergy were sent to the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp , including 400 Germans. Thousands of priests, nuns and brothers were imprisoned, taken to a concentration camp, tortured and murdered, including Saints Maximilian Kolbe and Edith Stein . Catholics fought on both sides in

16625-645: Was burned at the stake for heresy, but his reform efforts encouraged Martin Luther , an Augustinian friar in modern-day Germany, who sent his Ninety-five Theses to several bishops in 1517. His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences , and along with the Leipzig Debate this led to his excommunication in 1521. In Switzerland , Huldrych Zwingli , John Calvin and other Protestant Reformers further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into

16758-498: Was constructed in the Hart neighborhood, northwest of Biecz. Devastated areas were rebuilt and rejuvenated with money from these newly made oil fortunes. One of these nouveau riche, Father Jan Bochniewicz, established a charitable foundation with 50,000 PLN initial capital, a percentage of which was earmarked for distribution among the fifty poorest inhabitants of the city. The foundation survived until 1958. The economic recovery and

16891-426: Was demolished between 1815 and 1840. By 1787, trade good production had declined such that there remained only eight trade guilds . The most prosperous of the remaining trades was weaving, with approximately thirty workshops. Another surviving craft was shoemaking, with fourteen workshops. The shoemaking profession soon disappeared, however, as industrialization allowed for mass production of much cheaper product. At

17024-560: Was established by Louis I of Hungary in 1372 along the Hungarian -Red Ruthenian trade route. Economic development prompted rapid population growth. By the end of the 14th century, Biecz had become one of the largest cities in all of Poland, with a population of over 3,000 in the city and its suburbs. As a castellany , Biecz was not only entrusted with defensive responsibilities, but also served as judicial, administrative, and economic center for southern part of Kraków Voivodeship . After

17157-464: Was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century. The first known use of the phrase "the catholic church" ( Greek : καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία , romanized :  katholikḕ ekklēsía ) occurred in the letter written about 110 AD from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans , which read: "Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there

17290-490: Was home to a number of artists, painters, poets, and writers, including Jan Matejko and Stanisław Wyspiański . The first panoramic painting of Biecz was created in 1617 by Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg. Another famous depiction is J. Janson's copperplate Widok ogólny Biecza ("General view of Biecz"), which appears in Regni Poloniæ Ducatus Lituaniæ novissima descriptio (1659). Biecz was also

17423-461: Was largely resolved in 1415–17 at the Council of Constance , with the claimants in Rome and Pisa agreeing to resign and the third claimant excommunicated by the cardinals, who held a new election naming Martin V pope. In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting

17556-506: Was so widespread that the local sejm designated a special committee to litigate the issue. As attacks on merchants increased in frequency and severity, the government increased penalties for these types of crimes. The punishment was torture, usually flagellation , followed by execution. Afterwards, the head of the criminal would be mounted on a pole at the city gate to serve as a warning to others. The bodies of highwaymen were, according to tradition, hung from gibbets , which can be seen in

17689-416: Was the first bishop of Rome. Others say that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome. Many scholars hold that a church structure of plural presbyters/bishops persisted in Rome until the mid-2nd century, when the structure of a single bishop and plural presbyters was adopted, and that later writers retrospectively applied

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