Misplaced Pages

#468531

68-861: Bierstadt was born in Solingen , Rhine Province , Prussia on September 11, 1824. He was the son of Henry Bierstadt (1785–1866), a cooper , and Christiana ( née Tilmans) Bierstadt (1792–1864). His younger brother was noted painter Albert Bierstadt . As a boy, his family moved to the United States and they settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts . In 1860, he opened his own studio in New York City along with his brother, Albert Bierstadt, whose artwork he made into engravings . He produced stereoscopic images for Bierstadt Brothers, together with his other older brother Charles Bierstadt . Bierstadt

136-605: A Northern Europe blacksmith centre. Swords from Solingen have turned up in places such as the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the British Isles. Northern Europe prized the quality of Solingen's manufactured weaponry, and they were traded across the European continent. Solingen today remains the knife-centre of Germany. It was a tiny village for centuries, but became a fortified town in the 15th century. After being ravaged by

204-473: A baseball and softball club from Solingen. The club was founded in 1991 and the first men's team was promoted to the first division of the Baseball Bundesliga for the 2003 season. It has played there in every season since, winning the league championship in 2006 and 2014. The club claims over 250 members. The Schachgesellschaft Solingen e.V. 1868 is best known for its chess team, which plays in

272-469: A bladesmith himself. After abdicating, Toba II summoned Japan's finest bladesmiths around him in an effort to develop the perfect sword. It was determined that a sword had to be hard in order to maintain a sharp cutting edge, yet hard steel is brittle and can shatter under the stress of a heavy blow. Swordsmiths in Japan found the solution by wrapping a softer low-carbon steel core such as wrought iron, in

340-629: A council and a mayor since 1374, the year the town was granted its charter. The mayor changed annually on 24 June. Solingen has had a mayor since 1896. During the Nazi era (1933–1945), the mayor was appointed by the NSDAP and not democratically elected by the people of Solingen. After the Second World War, the military government of the British occupation zone appointed a Lord Mayor . From 1946,

408-527: A forge to shape the blade as opposed to knifemakers who form blades by use of the stock removal method, although there is some overlap between both crafts. Many blade smiths were known by other titles according to the kind of blade that they produced: Historically speaking, bladesmithing is an art that has survived and thrived over thousands of years. Many different parts of the world have different styles of bladesmithing, some more well-known than others. Ancient Egyptians referred to iron as "copper from

476-443: A jacket of high-carbon steel and then hardening the edge. However, under heavy usage, the edge would be more prone to chipping than its European counterparts, which were typically designed to deal with heavier armor than Japanese blades. This was answered by allowing projections of softer steel known as ashi to form in the hardened cutting edge during differential hardening of the blade. The Mongol invasions brought with them

544-433: A more pointed tip. Traditional Chinese blades ( jians ) are usually of sanmei (three plate) construction, which involved sandwiching a core of hard steel between two plates of softer steel. The central plate protrudes slightly from its surrounding pieces, allowing for a sharp edge, while the softer spine protects the brittle core. Some blades had wumei or five plate construction, with two more soft plates being used at

612-599: A need for swords also suited for hand-to-hand combat and the smiths began manufacture of shorter blades to meet this need. It was during the Muromachi period that the katana and tantō came into being. By the sixteenth century, Japanese bladesmithing had become so renowned throughout Asia that the Japanese turned to large scale manufacturing of swords as an export to China. Smiths at Sakai also crafted knives for cutting tobacco , which had been introduced by

680-602: A pattern welded core. Pattern welding was adopted from the neighbouring Romans, who had employed such technique since the second century AD. Bladesmithing was common practice in India during the Middle Ages. A special type of steel known as Wootz or Damascus steel was often used in South Asia. The term Damascus steel can refer to two different types of artefacts. One is the true Damascus steel, or Wootz steel, which

748-750: A representative of the entire Bergisches Land region. The team plays its home games at both Solingen's Klingenhalle (2,600 seats) and Wuppertal's Uni-Halle (3,200 seats). In May 1955, the city of Solingen took over the partnership of the German general cargo ship Solingen of the Hamburg-American Packet Transit Actien-Gesellschaft (Hapag) . Solingen is twinned with: Since 1990, Solingen also sponsors Złotoryja County in Poland. The founders of Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company, which later became

SECTION 10

#1732802168469

816-414: A variety of steels to produce their blades, most commonly high carbon steel , such as SAE 1075 or SAE 1095 (the '10' representing the 10-series carbon steels, while '75' '85' and '95' reflect the carbon content of the steel), tool steel such as O-1, A-2, D2 other tool or high carbon steels, or a variety of steels welded in layers, commonly referred to as "Damascus". When forging, the blade material

884-467: Is Bergischer HC , playing in the top-tier Handball-Bundesliga which they were promoted to for the second time in 2013, reaching 15th place in the 2013–14 campaign and therefore staying in the top flight for a second consecutive season. BHC originates from a 2006 cooperation between the SG Solingen and rivals LTV Wuppertal from the nearby city of the same name . The club advertises itself as

952-526: Is 62 kilometres (39 mi) long, and the city's dimensions are 15.6 kilometres (9.7 mi) east to west and 11.7 kilometres (7.3 mi) north to south. The Wupper river , a right tributary of the Rhine , flows through the city for 26 kilometres (16 mi). The city's highest point at 276 metres (906 ft) is in the northern borough of Gräfrath at the Light Tower, previously the water tower , and

1020-450: Is a high carbon alloy with tremendous edge retention possibly due to its composition of carbon nanotubes and carbide nanowires, with a wavy surface texture originating from the crystalline structure of alloy metals such as tungsten and vanadium - elements that occur naturally in iron ore from southern India - to the surface during the manufacturing process. This is still in debate as metallurgist John Verhoeven at Iowa State University believes

1088-526: Is an art that is thousands of years old and found in cultures as diverse as China, Japan, India, Germany, Korea, the Middle East, Spain and the British Isles. As with any art shrouded in history, there are myths and misconceptions about the process. While traditionally bladesmithing referred to the manufacture of any blade by any means, the majority of contemporary craftsmen referred to as bladesmiths are those who primarily manufacture blades by means of using

1156-595: Is classified as oceanic ( Köppen : Cfb ; Trewartha : Dolk ). The average annual temperature in Solingen is 9.1 °C (48.4 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,046.1 mm (41.19 in) with December as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 17.1 °C (62.8 °F), and lowest in January, at around 1.2 °C (34.2 °F). The Solingen weather station has recorded

1224-459: Is currently operated by RheinRuhrBahn, a subsidiary of Transdev Germany . The Rhein-Wupper-Bahn (RB 48) runs over the Gruiten–Köln-Deutz line to Bonn-Mehlem via Opladen and Cologne . It has been operated by National Express as of 13 December 2015. Starting 11 December 2022, an additional line RE47, running from Remscheid to Düsseldorf via Solingen has been established. This line

1292-433: Is heated to a high temperature or forging temperature in a forge and shaped with a hammer on an anvil to achieve the desired shape, often to near final dimension, where very little stock removal, if any, is required to finish. Steel can be folded either to form decorative pattern welded steel or to refine raw steel, or as the Japanese call it, tamahagane. Grain size is kept at a minimum as grain growth can happen quite easily if

1360-619: Is served by Regiobahn . Solingen has a trolleybus network, one of only three in Germany remaining besides Eberswalde and Esslingen am Neckar . The nearest airports are Düsseldorf Airport and Cologne Bonn Airport . Both airports can be reached by train from Solingen-Hauptbahnhof (change trains at Köln Messe/Deutz station for the S-Bahn 13 to Cologne Bonn Airport). Other easily reached airports are Frankfurt Airport ( ICE train stop ), Dortmund Airport (railway station " Holzwickede " on

1428-417: Is still practiced in the cities of Sakai (Osaka Prefecture) and Seki (Gifu Prefecture). The Germanic Migration period peoples also had advanced bladesmithing techniques for their level of technology. Migration Era smiths would often forge-weld blades of multiple materials, and their blades were typically double-edged and straight. Migration Era blades were often forged with a hard steel edge wrapped around

SECTION 20

#1732802168469

1496-595: Is the chairman of the council, the head of the city administration and the first representative of the city. Since 1999, the Lord Mayor has been directly elected by the electorate in a secret ballot. The current mayor of Solingen is Tim Kurzbach of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), elected in 2015 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows: The Solingen city council governs

1564-611: Is the earliest claim for a color photographic portrait. He first exhibited color portraits in 1892 and continued to do so throughout the 1890s. These portraits, which required several minutes of exposure time, were highly regarded despite their imperfections. Bierstadt's only surviving color portrait is that of his younger brother, Albert Bierstadt . Bierstadt's work in color photography also extended to microscopic photography. In collaboration with Dr. Edward Leaming at Columbia College , he produced color photographs of microscopic specimens in 1895 and 1896. In 1904, when Bierstadt turned 80, he

1632-754: The New Apostolic Church also have communities in Solingen. Most of the Turkish immigrants belong to the Muslim faith and they have several mosques/worship places in Solingen: The Solingen Paladins  [ de ] is an American football club which was founded in 2006. Until its bankruptcy in 1990, SG Union Solingen was the main club, playing at the Stadion am Hermann-Löns-Weg . The Solingen Alligators are

1700-581: The Prussian Rhine Province , 17 miles (27 km) by rail north of Cologne became part of Solingen. In World War II , the Old Town was completely destroyed by a bombing raid by the RAF in 1944; 1,800 people died and over 1,500 people were injured. As such, there are few pre-war sites in the centre. From 1945 to 1949 Solingen was part of the British occupation zone. Reconstruction of

1768-472: The Schachbundesliga (Chess Bundesliga) , the top tier of the German chess league system, and is the most successful club in German chess history, having won a record 12 national titles (1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1980/81, 1986/87, 1987/88, 1996/97 and 2015/16), three national cups (1986, 2006 und 2009) and 2 European cups (1976 and 1990). In handball , Solingen's most successful team

1836-512: The katana . This technology included folding, inserting alloys, and differential hardening of the edge, which historically has been the most common technique around the world. While the Japanese would be more influenced by the Chinese dāo (single-edged swords of various forms), the early Japanese swords known as ken are often based on the jian . One-sided jians from the Tang dynasty provided

1904-535: The plague with about 1,800 deaths in 1614–1619, Solingen was heavily fought over during the Thirty Years' War , repeatedly attacked and plundered, and the Burg Castle was destroyed. Early in the 20th century, Ohligs's chief manufactures were cutlery and hardware , and there were iron-foundries and flour mills . Other industries were brewing, dyeing, weaving and brick-making. In 1929, Ohligs located in

1972-474: The 1960s rose to several hundred by 2005. The basic art and principles of forging a blade has remained similar for thousands of years and the modern bladesmith uses a variety of tools and techniques in order to produce a blade. Forges formerly fed by wood, coke , or coal are still in use, but gas forges are becoming the standard. Likewise the smith's hammer is being eclipsed by the use of hydraulic forging presses and power hammers . Modern bladesmiths use

2040-561: The American Institute in New York City. In 1894, his work in color photography gained attention when he exhibited prints of oil and watercolor paintings, portraits, floral studies, and other subjects. Bierstadt's color reproductions of rugs were so accurate that they were used by salesmen on the street instead of carrying the actual rugs themselves. Bierstadt said that he made color portraits as early as July 1890, which

2108-539: The Portuguese. The Sakai bladesmithing industry received a major boost from the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), which granted Sakai a special seal of approval and enhanced its reputation for quality. The Haitorei Edict in 1876 banned carrying of swords in public, which, combined with the decimation of the samurai class caused a heavy decline in the number of swords produced throughout the country. Sword-making

Edward Bierstadt - Misplaced Pages Continue

2176-639: The RE7 trainline) and the low cost Weeze Airport (coaches from Düsseldorf Hauptbahnhof). Solingen has belonged from its beginnings to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne ( Erzbistum Köln ), and more specifically to the Archdeaconry of the Probst ( provost ) of St. Kunibert , the deanery of Deutz. For reasons that are unclear, the city has long been associated with St. Clement,

2244-481: The Solingen City Council elected an honorary Lord Mayor and a full-time Lord Mayor from among its members. Until 1997, the honorary lord mayors had mainly representative functions, while the full-time lord mayors were the chief administrative officers of the city of Solingen. In 1997, the dual leadership of the city administration was abolished. Since then there has been only one full-time Lord Mayor. He

2312-456: The US. In Europe, EN-45 is more commonly used. Many bladesmiths are able to forge a special type of steel using a technique called pattern welding , producing a metal erroneously referred to as Damascus steel. Modern pattern-welded steel can be highly decorative as well as durable (if welded in certain ways with proper steels), and is often used in custom knife- and sword-crafting. Bill Moran

2380-501: The automobile company Studebaker , trace their lineage to bladesmen from the region who emigrated to America in 1736. Swordsmith Bladesmithing is the art of making knives , swords , daggers and other blades using a forge , hammer , anvil , and other smithing tools. Bladesmiths employ a variety of metalworking techniques similar to those used by blacksmiths , as well as woodworking for knife and sword handles, and often leatherworking for sheaths. Bladesmithing

2448-600: The basis for various Japanese forging styles and techniques. The Korean version of the jian is known as the geom or gum , and these swords often preserve features found in Ming-era jian , such as openwork pommels and sharply angled tips. Korea has a history of swordsmithing dating back 3,000 years. Although Korea was in close proximity to both Japan and China, no native systems of swordsmanship and swordmaking developed in Korea. Korean swords include long swords such as

2516-587: The beginning of the new millennium, the Klingenstadt has undergone a massive transformation as a result of urban development projects such as Regionale 2006 and City 2013. For example, the new Korkenzieherstrasse cycle path was created and the demolition of the Turmhotel and the former Karstadt Passage made it possible to build a new shopping centre on Neumarkt in Solingen-Mitte. After the closure of

2584-611: The best in Europe. Damascus Steel was commonly used in the Middle East. Bladesmithing began declining after the Industrial Revolution . With improvements in steel production, bladesmiths no longer had to forge steel and knives could be machined from flat bars of steel. As cutlery companies moved to mass production of blades and machine tools became more available, the art of forging steel began to disappear as knifemakers could grind blades out of existing stock . By

2652-468: The blade material is overheated. Swords and longer blades, in modern times, are often crafted of 5160 carbon spring steel , which is not as hard or brittle as a high carbon steel (such as 1095), but is more durable and less prone to breakage, and therefore more suitable for longer weapons. 5160 carbon spring steel is sometimes used for leaf springs in American trucks, making it readily available in

2720-405: The boroughs' important administrative affairs. The five city boroughs: Ohligs/Aufderhöhe/Merscheid and Höhscheid/Burg are divided into sections ("Stadtteile") that were once separate towns and are still statistical and planning units but are no longer self-governing. The city further comprises many neighborhoods with their own names, although they often lack precise borders: Solingen's climate

2788-463: The central ridge. Bronze jian were often made in a somewhat similar manner: in this case an alloy with a high copper content would be used to make a resilient core and spine, while the edge would be made from a high-tin-content alloy for sharpness and welded onto the rest of the blade. The swordsmiths of China are often credited with the forging technology that was carried to Korea and Japan, allowing swordsmiths in those places to create such weapons as

Edward Bierstadt - Misplaced Pages Continue

2856-463: The city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows: Solingen Hauptbahnhof is served by Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn line S1 from Düsseldorf and Düsseldorf Airport Station. S-Bahn line S7 links Solingen (including the station nearest the city centre, Solingen Mitte , and Solingen-Grünewald ) to Wuppertal via Remscheid , Remscheid-Lennep and Wuppertal-Ronsdorf . This line

2924-477: The construction of the Viehbachtalstraße motorway through the city in the late 1970s. In 1975, the city grew again with the incorporation of the previously independent town of Burg an der Wupper. In 1993, Solingen made international headlines for a right-wing extremist arson attack in which five Turkish girls and women were killed. The attack was followed by demonstrations and riots in the city. Since

2992-1038: The district synod of Lennep, today part of the city Remscheid . A new synod was established in Solingen in 1843, and the city acquired its own superintendent , a form of church administrator. This formed the basis for the present-day Church District of Solingen, a member of the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland . With the exception of the free churches , most Protestant churches belong to the Church District of Solingen. Today approximately 34% of Solingen's population belongs to Protestant churches, and roughly 26% belong to Catholic churches. Other church communities in Solingen include Greek Orthodox , Evangelical Free (including Baptist and Brethren ), Methodist , Seventh-day Adventist , Pentecostal , Salvation Army , and free churches. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , Jehovah's Witnesses and

3060-523: The earliest users of iron swords. During the Hallstatt period, they made swords both in bronze as well as iron with rounded tips. Toward the end of the Hallstatt period, around 600-500BC, these swords were replaced with short daggers. The La Tene culture reintroduced the sword, which were very different from the traditional shape and construction of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age, characterized by

3128-531: The exact techniques and without a recipe for the process, it was in danger of being lost; through trial and error he taught himself pattern welding and referred to his end product as "Damascus steel". In 1972, Moran was elected president of the Knifemakers' Guild . The following year he unveiled his "Damascus knives" at the Guild Show and created a revival of interest in the forged blade, and along with

3196-409: The following extreme values: Solingen was first mentioned in 1067 by a chronicler who called the area "Solonchon". Early variations of the name included "Solengen", "Solungen", and "Soleggen", although the modern name seems to have been in use since the late 14th and early 15th centuries. Blacksmiths' smelters, dating back over 2000 years, have been found around the town, adding to Solingen's fame as

3264-545: The fourth or fifth century A.D. Although appearing to be ceremonial in nature, samples of these straight blades preserved in the Shōsōin were hand-forged with hardened cutting edges. By the time of the Heian period (794—1185 AD) the Japanese sword took on its distinctive curved shape as a mounted horseman would have more use for a slashing type of blade as opposed to a thrusting type. These swords were known as tachi . Due to

3332-547: The heavens" because their lack of smelting technology limited their accessible iron supplies to what little native iron they could recover from meteorites . Despite iron's rarity, they gained enough familiarity with ironworking techniques to have used wrought iron in the manufacture of swords and blades as early as 3000 BC. They exported this technique to Assyria, Babylon and Greece through trade and as they conquered other lands and were conquered themselves. The Proto-Celtic Hallstatt culture (8th century BC) were among

3400-489: The knives he gave away free booklets detailing how he made them, to encourage other knifemakers to take up the hammer and anvil. In 1976 he founded the American Bladesmith Society (ABS). Despite its name, this was an international group of knife makers dedicated to preserving the forged blade and educating the public about traditional bladesmithing techniques. The handful of traditional bladesmiths in

3468-461: The lowest point at 53 metres (174 ft) is in the southwest. The following cities and communities share a border with Solingen, starting in the northeast and going clockwise around the city: Solingen currently consists of five Stadtbezirke, or boroughs . Each borough has a municipal council of either 13 or 15 representatives ( Bezirksvertreter ) elected every five years by the borough's population. The municipal councils are responsible for many of

SECTION 50

#1732802168469

3536-417: The mid 20th century, bladesmithing had been relegated to a cottage industry carried out by a handful of bladesmiths. One of these bladesmiths was William F. Moran , who forged his knives using a coal forge in the manner of a blacksmith using a hammer and anvil to shape the steel. Moran began trying to revive the ancient process of forging Damascus steel in the late 1960s. However, no living bladesmith knew

3604-504: The nanowires to occur in most steels. The other is a composite structure made by welding together iron and steel to give a visible pattern on the surface, called pattern welded steel. Although both were referred to as Damascus steels, true Damascus steels were not replicated in Europe until 1821. Between the 15th and 17th centuries the Toledo sword-making industry enjoyed a great boom, to the point where its products came to be regarded as

3672-534: The newly defined Archdiocese of Cologne, to which the city's current parishes still belong. As mentioned, the Reformation only gradually gained a foothold in Solingen. A reformed church affiliated with the Bergisch synod was established in 1590, and the city's parish church became reformed in 1649. Lutherans had been present in Solingen since the beginning of the 17th century, and a Lutheran congregation

3740-410: The old central station in Solingen-Mitte, Ohligs station was officially named the new Solingen central station by Deutsche Bahn AG on 10 December 2006. On 23 August 2024, a mass stabbing occurred during a festival for the city's 650th founding anniversary. Solingen's population doubled between the years 1880 and 1890 due to the incorporation of the town of Dorp into Solingen in 1889, at which time

3808-540: The old town began in 1949. The newly built Protestant church in Fronhof was consecrated in 1954, and the destroyed towers of the Catholic church of St. Clemens were rebuilt in a different style. By the end of the 1970s, the city's population had increased due to numerous new housing developments in all parts of the city. The city's infrastructure continued to grow, with the opening of the theatre and concert hall in 1963 and

3876-403: The population reached 36,000. The population again received a large boost on 1 August 1929 through the incorporation of Ohligs, Wald, Höhscheid, and Gräfrath into the city limits. This brought the population above the 100,000 mark, which gave Solingen the distinction of being a "large city" ( Großstadt ). The number of inhabitants peaked in 1971 with 177,899 residents, and the 2006 population figure

3944-485: The quality of metal found in Japan, Japanese bladesmithing became an extremely rigid, precise process, involving folding and forge-welding the steel many times over to create a laminated blade. By the time of the Kamakura period (1185–1333 AD), Japan was under the rule of a military class and repelling Mongol invasions. This became known as the "Golden era" of Japanese bladesmithing under Emperor Toba II , who became

4012-679: The second-largest city in the Bergisches Land, and a member of the regional authority of the Rhineland . Solingen is called the "City of Blades", and has long been renowned for the manufacturing of fine swords, knives, scissors and razors made by firms such as WKC , DOVO, Wüsthof , Zwilling J. A. Henckels , Böker , Güde, Hubertus, Diefenthal, Puma, Clauberg/Klauberg, Eickhorn, Linder, Carl Schmidt Sohn, Dreiturm, Herder, Martor Safety Knives, Wolfertz, Ralf Aust and numerous other manufacturers. The medieval swordsmiths of Solingen designed

4080-557: The third Pope, symbols of whose martyrdom appear on the city’s shield. Although the Protestant Reformation gradually made gains in the city, which was under the control of the Counts of Berg , the population by and large remained Roman Catholic for a while. The Catholic community was newly endowed by the local lord in 1658 and in 1701 received a new church building. In 1827 Solingen became the seat of its own deanery within

4148-558: The town's coat of arms . In the late 17th century, a group of swordsmiths from Solingen broke their guild oaths by taking their sword-making secrets with them to Shotley Bridge , County Durham, in England. Solingen lies southwest of Wuppertal in the Bergisches Land . The city has an area of 89.45 square kilometres (34.54 sq mi), of which roughly 50% is used for agriculture, horticulture, or forestry. The city's border

SECTION 60

#1732802168469

4216-504: The yeoh do, geom, and hyup do and curved swords such as Samindo. Metal swords of double bladed leaf structure have been found throughout Korea dating back to the Bronze Age. These bronze swords were around 32 cm (13 in) in overall length, with a short handle. The technology that led to the development of the Japanese sword originated in China and was brought to Japan by way of Korea. The oldest steel swords found in Japan date to

4284-465: Was 163,263. The following chart shows the population figures within Solingen's city limits at the respective points in time. The figures are derived from census estimates or numbers provided by statistical offices or city agencies, with the exception of figures preceding 1843, which were gathered using inconsistent recording techniques. 30.9% of the population of Solingen has foreign roots (statistics 2012). The people of Solingen have been able to elect

4352-408: Was completely banned following World War II and did not resume until 1953, under heavy restrictions to preserve it solely as an art. In modern-day Japan a swordsmith is still only allowed to manufacture two swords a month by law, for example. As a result, many smiths travel to Taiwan or China to make extra swords for the export market as foreign-made swords are also illegal in Japan. Bladesmithing

4420-584: Was considered one of the best printers in the United States. Bierstadt held an 1876 patent for an improvement to the stereoscope . Along with his brother, he produced some stereoscopic photographs from across the country, sometimes credited as the "Bierstadt Brothers". Bierstadt was a pioneer of color photography . He mainly used the subtractive method to take color photographs and subsequently printed his results. Bierstadt learned about color photography from Joseph Albert  [ de ] . In November 1877, Bierstadt exhibited three color Albertype prints at

4488-562: Was founded in 1635. In 1672 a formalized religious agreement was reached between the city's religious groups. The Reformation was also introduced in Gräfrath in 1590, where a church council was apparently established in 1629. The Reformed and Lutheran churches were formed into a united church community in 1838 following the general merger of Reformed and Lutheran churches in Prussia in 1817. The Protestant parishes originally belonged to

4556-710: Was hired by William West Durant to take a series of photos for an advertising brochure entitled The Adirondacks, Artotype Views Among the Mountains and Lakes of the North Woods to publicize Blue Mountain Lake and Raquette Lake in the Adirondacks . He founded the Photo-Plate Printing Company in 1870, which produced collotype prints for several significant book illustrations. The company

4624-523: Was still engaged in researching color photography. Bierstadt died in New York City on June 15, 1906. Solingen Solingen ( German pronunciation: [ˈzoːlɪŋən] ; Limburgish : Solich ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia , Germany, 25 km east of Düsseldorf along the northern edge of the Bergisches Land , south of the Ruhr . After Wuppertal , it is

#468531