177-458: A bikini is a two-piece swimsuit primarily worn by women that features one piece on top that covers the breasts , and a second piece on the bottom: the front covering the pelvis but usually exposing the navel , and the back generally covering the intergluteal cleft and some or all of the buttocks . The size of the top and bottom can vary, from bikinis that offer full coverage of the breasts, pelvis, and buttocks, to more revealing designs with
354-663: A compound annual growth rate of 6.2%. Part of the increased consumption of bikinis and swimwears can be attributed to influencers who promote and endorse various brands around the year. Soccer player and best selling author Mo Isom describes it as, "We're flooded with Instagram bikini pics." It was estimated in 2016 that in 2019 the USA would be the largest swimwear market (US$ 10 billion), followed by Europe (US$ 5 billion), Asia–Pacific (US$ 4 billion) and Middle East and Africa (about 1 billion). The 1967 Bollywood film An Evening in Paris
531-582: A thong or G-string bottom that covers only the mons pubis , but exposes the buttocks, and a top that covers only the areolae . Bikini bottoms covering about half the buttocks may be described as "Brazilian-cut". The modern bikini swimsuit was introduced by French clothing designer Louis Réard in July 1946, and was named after the Bikini Atoll , where the first public test of a nuclear bomb had taken place four days before. Due to its revealing design,
708-412: A wetsuit or drysuit such as cold water swimming, water skiing , scuba diving , surfing , and wakeboarding . Swimsuits may also be worn to display the wearer's physical attributes , as in the case of beauty pageants or bodybuilding contests, and glamour photography and magazines like the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue featuring models and sports personalities in swimsuits. There
885-537: A " facekini " to protect their face from sunburns . In most parts of the Middle East , bikinis are either banned or are highly controversial. On March 18, 1973, when Lebanese magazine Ash-Shabaka printed a bikini-clad woman on the cover, they had to make a second version with only the face of the model. In 2011, when Huda Naccache ( Miss Earth 2011) posed for the cover of Lilac (based in Israel ), she became
1062-573: A "two-piece bathing suit which reveals everything about a girl except for her mother's maiden name." Fashion magazine Modern Girl Magazine in 1957 stated that "it is hardly necessary to waste words over the so-called bikini since it is inconceivable that any girl with tact and decency would ever wear such a thing". In 1951, Eric Morley organized the Festival Bikini Contest , a beauty contest and swimwear advertising opportunity at that year's Festival of Britain . The press, welcoming
1239-425: A 100-foot (30 m) steel tower. The bomb was driven to the base of the tower, where a temporary eye bolt was screwed into the 105-pound (48 kg) capsule and a chain hoist was used to lower the capsule into the bomb. As the capsule entered the hole in the uranium tamper, it stuck. Robert Bacher realized that the heat from the plutonium core had caused the capsule to expand, while the explosives assembly with
1416-437: A Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a decent Shift on their bodies. The Expedition of Humphry Clinker was published in 1771 and its description of ladies' bathing costume is different from that of Celia Fiennes a hundred years earlier: The ladies wear jackets and petticoats of brown linen, with chip hats, in which they fix their handkerchiefs to wipe the sweat from their faces; but, truly, whether it
1593-422: A bikini on every beach in the south of France. Similar photographs were taken of Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren , among others. According to The Guardian , Bardot's photographs in particular turned Saint-Tropez into the beachwear capital of the world, with Bardot identified as the original Cannes bathing beauty. Bardot's photography helped to enhance the public profile of the festival, and Cannes in turn played
1770-469: A bikini or "bikini brief", particularly if it has slimmer sides. Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear. The bikini has gradually gained wide acceptance in Western society . By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a US$ 811 million business annually, and boosted spin off services such as bikini waxing and sun tanning . While the two-piece swimsuit as
1947-648: A bikini. Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear. According to archaeologist James Mellaart , a mural from the Chalcolithic era (around 5600 BC) in Çatalhöyük , Anatolia depicts a mother goddess astride two leopards wearing a costume somewhat like a bikini. The two-piece swimsuit can be traced back to the Greco-Roman world , where bikini-like garments worn by women athletes are depicted on urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BC. In Coronation of
SECTION 10
#17327726259202124-519: A bottom that "extended from the midriff to the upper thigh" and was "held up by shoestring laces that make a halter around the neck." Some credit Gernreich's design with initiating, or describe it as a symbol of, the sexual revolution . Trinity test Trinity was the code name of the first detonation of a nuclear weapon , conducted by the United States Army at 5:29 a.m. MWT (11:29:21 GMT ) on July 16, 1945, as part of
2301-476: A bra, and two front-and-back triangular pieces of fabric covering the mons pubis and the buttocks , respectively, connected by string. When he was unable to find a fashion model willing to showcase his revealing design, Réard hired Micheline Bernardini , an 18-year old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris . He announced that his swimsuit, was "smaller than the world's smallest bathing suit". Réard said that "like
2478-655: A company that normally made boilers for the Navy, Babcock & Wilcox ; they had made something similar and were willing to attempt its manufacture. As delivered in May 1945, Jumbo was 10 feet (3.05 m) in diameter and 25 feet (7.62 m) long with walls 14 inches (356 mm) thick, and weighed 214 short tons (191 long tons; 194 t). A special train brought it from the Babcock & Wilcox plant in Barberton, Ohio , to
2655-439: A controlled reaction were uncertain, and the data obtained would not be as useful as that from a full-scale explosion. Oppenheimer argued that the bomb "must be tested in a range where the energy release is comparable with that contemplated for final use." In March 1944, he obtained Groves's tentative approval for testing a full-scale explosion inside a containment vessel, although Groves was still worried about how he would explain
2832-533: A crucial role in her career. Brian Hyland 's novelty-song hit " Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini " became a Billboard No. 1 hit during the summer of 1960: the song tells a story about a young girl who is too shy to wear her new bikini on the beach, thinking it too risqué. Playboy first featured a bikini on its cover in 1962; the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debut two years later featured Babette March in
3009-511: A design existed in classical antiquity , the modern design first attracted public notice in Paris on July 5, 1946. In May 1946, Parisian fashion designer Jacques Heim released a two-piece swimsuit design that he named the Atome ('Atom') and advertised as "the smallest swimsuit in the world". Like swimsuits of the era, it covered the wearer's belly button, and it failed to attract much attention. French automotive engineer Louis Réard introduced
3186-683: A design he named the "Bikini", adopting the name from the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean, which was the colonial name the Germans gave to the atoll, borrowed from the Marshallese name for the island, Pikinni . Four days earlier, the United States had initiated its first peacetime nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads . Unlike the prior Trinity test , or most subsequent nuclear test series,
3363-859: A famous incident in 1952, model Ann Ferguson was asked to leave a beach in Surfers Paradise because her Paula Stafford bikini was too revealing. The bikini was banned in Australia, on the French Atlantic coastline, in Spain, in Italy, and in Portugal, and was prohibited or discouraged in a number of US states. The United States Motion Picture Production Code , also known as the Hays Code, enforced from 1934, allowed two-piece gowns but prohibited
3540-559: A fine yellow canvas, which is stiff and made large with great sleeves like a parson's gown; the water fills it up so that it is borne off that your shape is not seen, it does not cling close as other linning, which Lookes sadly in the poorer sort that go in their own linning. The Gentlemen have drawers and wastcoates of the same sort of canvas, this is the best linning, for the bath water will Change any other yellow. The Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for women: No Female person shall at any time hereafter go into
3717-468: A fissile "core" by two different high explosives which produced shock waves of different speeds. Alternating the faster- and slower-burning explosives in a carefully calculated configuration would produce a compressive wave upon their simultaneous detonation. This so-called " explosive lens " focused the shock waves inward with sufficient force to rapidly compress the solid plutonium core to several times its original density. The increase in density caused
SECTION 20
#17327726259203894-563: A looser fitting square-cut or swim brief. Germs, bacteria, and mold can grow very quickly on wet bathing suits. Medical professionals warn that wearing damp swimwear for long periods of time can cause a number of infections and rashes in children and adults, and warn against sharing bathing suits with others. They suggest that changing out of a wet bathing suit right away can help prevent vaginal infections, itching and/or jock itch. In public swimming pools in France for reasons of hygiene, it
4071-426: A magazine and commissary. The railroad siding at Pope, New Mexico, was upgraded by adding an unloading platform. Roads were built, and 200 miles (320 km) of telephone wire were strung. Electricity was supplied by portable generators. Bomb shelters to protect test observers were the most expensive to construct. Due to its proximity to the bombing range, the base camp was accidentally bombed twice in May. When
4248-547: A major component of marketing various women's sports . It is an official uniform for beach volleyball and is widely worn in athletics and other sports. Sports bikinis have gained popularity since the 1990s. However, the trend has raised significant criticism in recent years among people who view it as an attempt to sell sex. Female swimmers do not commonly wear bikinis in competitive swimming. The International Swimming Federation (FINA) voted to prohibit female swimmers from racing in bikinis in its meeting at Rome in 1960. In 1994,
4425-421: A mildly radioactive light green glass, which was named trinitite . The explosion created a crater approximately 4.7 feet (1.4 m) deep and 88 yards (80 m) wide. The radius of the trinitite layer was approximately 330 yards (300 m). The 100-foot shot tower was completely vaporized. At the time of detonation, the surrounding mountains were illuminated "brighter than daytime" for one to two seconds, and
4602-517: A photo shoot involving 3,090 women. " Beijing bikini " refers to the Chinese urban practice of men rolling up their shirts to expose their midriff to cool off in public in the summer. In Japan, wearing a bikini is common on the beach and at baths or pools. But, according to a 2013 study, 94% women are not body confident enough to wear a bikini in public without resorting to sarongs , zip-up sweatshirts , T-shirts, or shorts. Japanese women also often wear
4779-408: A second set on July 10. Each was examined by Bradbury and Kistiakowsky, and the best ones were selected for use. The remainder were handed over to Edward Creutz , who conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon near Los Alamos without nuclear material. Magnetic measurements from this test suggested that the implosion might be insufficiently simultaneous and the bomb would fail. Bethe worked through
4956-474: A skimpy garment. It was a state of mind. Lena Lenček Despite the garment's initial success in France, women worldwide continued to wear traditional one-piece swimsuits. When his sales stalled, Réard went back to designing and selling orthodox knickers. In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole, owner of mass market swimwear firm Cole of California, told Time that he had "little but scorn for France's famed Bikinis." Réard himself would later describe it as
5133-464: A success. As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl , I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent." The bikini finally caught on, and in 1963, the movie Beach Party , starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon , led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop-culture symbol, though Funicello was barred from wearing Réard's bikini unlike
5310-423: A translucent character, but shortly turned to a tinted or colored white smoke appearance. The ball of fire seemed to rise in something of toadstool effect. Later the column proceeded as a cylinder of white smoke; it seemed to move ponderously. A hole was punched through the clouds, but two fog rings appeared well above the white smoke column. There was a spontaneous cheer from the observers. Dr. von Neumann said, "that
5487-403: A two-piece swimsuit design in Paris that he called the atome , after the smallest known particle of matter. He announced that it was the "world's smallest bathing suit." Although briefer than the two-piece swimsuits of the 1930s, the bottom of Heim's new two-piece beach costume still covered the wearer's navel. Soon after, Louis Réard created a competing two-piece swimsuit design, which he called
Bikini - Misplaced Pages Continue
5664-411: A way to recover it. The Laboratory's Governing Board then directed Norman Ramsey to investigate how this could be done. In February 1944, Ramsey proposed a small-scale test in which the explosion was limited in size by reducing the number of generations of chain reactions, and that it take place inside a sealed containment vessel from which the plutonium could be recovered. The means of generating such
5841-477: A white bikini on the cover. This has been credited with making the bikini a legitimate piece of clothing. Ursula Andress , appearing as Honey Ryder in the 1962 British James Bond film, Dr. No , wore a white bikini , which became known as the " Dr. No bikini ". It became one of the most famous bikinis of all time and an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history. Andress said that she owed her career to that white bikini, remarking, "This bikini made me into
6018-579: Is a synthetic element with complicated properties about which little was known at first, as until 1944 it had been produced only in cyclotrons in very pure microgram amounts, whereas a weapon would require kilogram quantities bred in a reactor. In April 1944, Los Alamos physicist Emilio Segrè discovered that plutonium produced by the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Clinton Engineer Works contained plutonium-240 as an impurity. Plutonium-240 undergoes spontaneous fission at thousands of times
6195-454: Is a very wide range of styles of modern swimsuits available, which vary as to body coverage and materials. The choice of style may depend on community standards of modesty , as well as current fashions , and personal preferences. The choice will also consider the occasion, for example whether it is to be worn for a passive occasion such as sunbathing or for an activity such as surfing or swimsuit competition . Swimwear universally covers at least
6372-716: Is an item of clothing designed to be worn by people engaging in a water-based activity or water sports , such as swimming , diving and surfing , or sun-orientated activities, such as sun bathing . Different types may be worn by men, women, and children. A swimsuit can be described by various names, some of which are used only in particular locations or for particular types of suit, including swimwear , bathing suit , bathing attire , swimming costume , bathing costume , swimming suit , swimmers , swimming togs , bathers , cossie (short for "costume"), or swimming trunks (usually worn by men), besides others. A swimsuit can be worn as an undergarment in sports that sometimes require
6549-708: Is becoming more common as a durable, lightweight fabric for swimsuits, although it is not as stretchy as spandex. Some companies have started to focus on recycled materials for their swimwear. They are working with companies that transform fishnets, nylon waste, and recovered plastic from shorelines, waterways and coastal communities into textile components. In Western culture, men's swimsuit styles include boardshorts , jammers , swim trunks , briefs also known as " Speedos ", thongs , and g-strings , in order of decreasing lower body coverage, and women's swimsuits include one-piece , bikinis , or thongs . While they go through many trends in color, pattern, length, and cut, there
6726-406: Is desired, and prevailing fashions . Almost all swimsuits cover intimate body parts including genitals and pubic hair , while most except thongs or g-strings (also called Brazilians) cover much or all of the buttocks . Most swimsuits in western culture leave at least the head, shoulders, arms, and lower part of the leg (below the knee) exposed. Women's swimsuits generally cover at least
6903-719: Is mostly remembered because it featured actress Sharmila Tagore as the first Indian actress to wear a bikini on film. She also posed in a bikini for the glossy Filmfare magazine. The costume shocked a conservative Indian audience, but it also set in motion a trend carried forward by Zeenat Aman in Heera Panna (1973) and Qurbani (1980), Dimple Kapadia in Bobby (1973), and Parveen Babi in Yeh Nazdeekiyan (1982). Indonesian actress Nurnaningsih 's bikini clad photos were widely distributed in early 1950s, though she
7080-544: Is no evidence that they were used for swimming. All classical pictures of swimming show nude swimmers. In various cultural traditions one swims, if not in the nude, in a version in suitable material of a garment or undergarment commonly worn on land, e.g. a loincloth such as the Japanese man's fundoshi . In the United Kingdom, until the mid-19th century there was no law against nude swimming , and each town
7257-425: Is not much modification to the original variety of suit. A recent innovation is the burqini , favored by some Muslim women, which covers the whole body and head (but not face) in a manner similar to a diver's wetsuit . These are an updated version of full-body swimwear, which has been available for centuries , but conforms with Islam 's traditional emphasis on modest dress. In Egypt , the term " Sharia swimsuit"
Bikini - Misplaced Pages Continue
7434-436: Is only permitted to wear closer fitting styles of swimwear. Men, for instance, must wear "Speedo"-style bathing suits and not baggy shorts or trunks. In classical antiquity swimming and bathing were done naked . There are Roman murals which show women playing sports and exercising wearing two-piece suits covering the areas around their breasts and hips in a fashion remarkably similar to the present-day bikini. However, there
7611-498: Is owing to the steam that surrounds them, or the heat of the water, or the nature of the dress, or to all these causes together, they look so flushed, and so frightful, that I always turn my eyes another way. Penelope Byrde points out that Smollett's description may not be accurate, for he describes a two-piece costume, not the one piece shift or smock that most people describe and is depicted in contemporary prints. His description does, however, tally with Elizabeth Grant's description of
7788-488: Is used to describe full-body swimwear. Swimsuit color affects swimmers' safety . A blue, white, or gray swimsuit may be nearly invisible when the swimmer is underwater, which can make it more difficult for a lifeguard to spot a drowning swimmer. The most visible swimsuits underwater have large, solid blocks of bright neon colors , such as neon pink or neon orange. Solid neon colors are more visible than red or multi-colored swimsuits. In other cultures (particularly
7965-526: The 2000 Summer Olympics amid some criticism. It was the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the 2000 Games. Much of the interest was because of the sex appeal of bikini-clad players along with their athletic ability. Bikini-clad dancers and cheerleaders entertain the audience during match breaks in many beach volleyball tournaments, including the Olympics. Even indoor volleyball costumes followed suit to become smaller and tighter. However,
8142-679: The Los Alamos Laboratory , possibly inspired by the poetry of John Donne . The test, both planned and directed by Kenneth Bainbridge , was conducted in the Jornada del Muerto desert about 35 miles (56 km) southeast of Socorro, New Mexico , on what was the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range (renamed the White Sands Proving Ground just before the test). The only structures originally in
8319-524: The Manhattan Project . The test was of an implosion-design plutonium bomb, nicknamed " The Gadget ", of the same design as the Fat Man bomb later detonated over Nagasaki , Japan, on August 9, 1945. Concerns about whether the complex Fat Man design would work led to a decision to conduct the first nuclear test . The code name "Trinity" was assigned by J. Robert Oppenheimer , the director of
8496-586: The NPD Group , a consumer and retail information company, and had boosted spin-off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning industries. The first bikini museum in the world is being built in Bad Rappenau in Germany. The development of swimwear from 1880 to the present is presented on 2,000 square metres of exhibition space. By 2017, the global swimwear market was valued at US$ 18,5 billion with
8673-677: The National Register of Historic Places the following year. The creation of nuclear weapons arose from the scientific and political developments of the 1930s. The decade saw many new discoveries about the nature of atoms, including the existence of nuclear fission . The concurrent rise of fascist governments in Europe led to a fear of a German nuclear weapon project , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. When their calculations showed that nuclear weapons were theoretically feasible,
8850-593: The National Safety Council , was made responsible for safety. Captain Samuel P. Davalos, the assistant post engineer at Los Alamos, was placed in charge of construction. First Lieutenant Harold C. Bush became commander of the Base Camp at Trinity. Scientists William Penney , Victor Weisskopf and Philip Moon were consultants. Eventually seven subgroups were formed: The E-9 group was renamed
9027-609: The Oxford University Press (OUP) in 2003, considers lexicographic inventions like bandeaukini and camkini, two variants of the tankini, important to observe. Although "bikini" was originally a registered trademark of Réard, it has since become genericized . Variations of the term are used to describe stylistic variations for promotional purposes and industry classifications, including monokini, microkini , tankini , trikini , pubikini , bandeaukini and skirtini . A man's brief swimsuit may also be referred to as
SECTION 50
#17327726259209204-400: The areola and bottom half of the breasts . Both men and women may sometimes wear swimsuits covering more of the body when swimming in cold water (see also wetsuit and dry suit ). In colder temperatures, swimsuits are needed to conserve body heat and protect the body core from hypothermia. Competitive swimwear refers to the swimsuit , clothing, equipment, and accessories used in
9381-532: The bikini . He noticed that women at the beach rolled up the edges of their swimsuit bottoms and tops to improve their tan. On 5 July, Réard introduced his design at a swimsuit review held at a popular Paris public pool, Piscine Molitor , four days after the first test of a US nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll . The newspapers were full of news about it and Réard hoped for the same with his design. Réard's bikini undercut Heim's atome in its brevity. His design consisted of two side-by-side triangles of fabric forming
9558-566: The bombing of Hiroshima ; the design used in the Trinity test, and eventually used in the bombing of Nagasaki ( Fat Man ), was based on plutonium. The original design considered for a weapon based on plutonium-239 was Thin Man , in which (as in the Little Boy uranium bomb) two subcritical masses of fissile material would be brought rapidly together to form a single critical mass . Plutonium
9735-431: The string bikini , and allowed Rudi Gernreich to create the topless monokini. Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet , leather , and crocheted squares surfaced in the early '70s. Réard's company folded in 1988, four years after his death. Meanwhile, the bikini had become the most popular beachwear around the globe. According to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard, this was due to "the power of women, and not
9912-481: The tankini and trikini further cemented this derivation. Over time the " –kini family" (as dubbed by author William Safire ), including the " –ini sisters" (as dubbed by designer Anne Cole), expanded into a variety of swimwear including the monokini (also known as a numokini or unikini), seekini, tankini , camikini, hikini (also hipkini), minikini, face-kini , burkini , and microkini . The Language Report , compiled by lexicographer Susie Dent and published by
10089-612: The " Bikini Girls ". Other Roman archaeological finds depict the goddess Venus in a similar garment. In Pompeii , depictions of Venus wearing a bikini were discovered in the Casa della Venere, in the tablinum of the House of Julia Felix , and in an atrium garden of Via Dell'Abbondanza . Swimming or bathing outdoors was discouraged in the Christian West , so there was little demand or need for swimming or bathing costumes until
10266-422: The 1870s as "a pair of very short red and white striped drawers". Female bathing costumes were derived from those worn at Bath and other spas. It would appear that until the 1670s, nude female bathing in the spas was the norm, and that after that time women bathed clothed. Celia Fiennes gave a detailed description of the standard ladies' bathing costume in 1687: The Ladyes go into the bath with Garments made of
10443-530: The 18th century. The bathing gown of the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise -type gown made of wool or flannel that retained coverage and modesty. In 1907, Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellermann was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing form-fitting sleeveless one-piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe, a costume she adopted from England, although it became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910. In 1913, designer Carl Jantzen made
10620-447: The 1930s, new materials were being developed and used in swimwear, particularly latex and nylon , and swimsuits gradually began hugging the body, especially women's swimsuits. In the 1960s, spandex (Lycra) began to be used in swimsuits, usually combined with nylon, to make them fit snugly to the body. However, spandex is not particularly strong or durable, especially in chlorinated water in swimming pools and hot tubs. Polyester
10797-576: The British and United States governments supported an all-out effort to build them. These efforts were transferred to the authority of the U.S. Army in June 1942 and became the Manhattan Project . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. was appointed its director in September. The weapons development portion of this project was located at the Los Alamos Laboratory in northern New Mexico , under
SECTION 60
#173277262592010974-466: The FIVB's mandating of the bikini ran into problems. Some sports officials consider it exploitative and impractical in colder weather. It also drew the ire of some athletes. At the 2006 Asian Games at Doha, Qatar, only one Muslim country – Iraq – fielded a team in the beach volleyball competition because of concerns that the uniform was inappropriate. They refused to wear bikinis. The weather during
11151-746: The French film Manina, la fille sans voiles ("Manina, the girl unveiled"). The promotion for the film, released in France in March 1953, drew more attention to Bardot's bikinis than to the film itself. By the time the film was released in the United States in 1958, it was re-titled Manina, the Girl in the Bikini . Bardot was also photographed wearing a bikini on the beach during the 1957 Cannes Film Festival . Working with her husband and agent Roger Vadim , she garnered significant attention with photographs of her wearing
11328-551: The Resurrection." That still does not make a Trinity, but in another, better known devotional poem Donne opens: " Batter my heart, three person'd God ." In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge , a professor of physics at Harvard University , working under explosives expert George Kistiakowsky . Bainbridge's group was known as the E-9 (Explosives Development) Group. Stanley Kershaw, formerly from
11505-717: The Trinity Site to help prepare for the bomb test. They tried to use water out of the ranch wells but found the water so alkaline they could not drink it. They were forced to use U.S. Navy saltwater soap and hauled drinking water in from the firehouse in Socorro. Gasoline and diesel were purchased from the Standard Oil plant there. Freshwater was trucked in, 700 US gallons (2,600 L; 580 imp gal) per load, from 40 miles (64 km) away. Military and civilian construction personnel built warehouses, workshops,
11682-543: The Trinity Test device as that had yet to be developed, but once it was, it became the laboratory code name. The Trinity bomb was officially a Y-1561 device, as was the Fat Man used later in the bombing of Nagasaki. The two were very similar, though the Trinity bomb lacked fuzing and external ballistic casing. The bombs were still under development, and small changes continued to be made to the Fat Man design. To keep
11859-470: The UK), the term "trunks" is used to describe swim briefs, although it has been increasingly common for any men's swimwear to be generically described as "trunks". Swimsuits can be skin-tight or loose-fitting. They are often lined with another layer of fabric if the outer fabric becomes transparent when wet. Swimsuits range from designs that almost completely cover the body to designs that expose almost all of
12036-510: The United States War Production Board issued Regulation L-85, cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing and mandating a 10% reduction in the amount of fabric in women's beachwear. To comply with the regulations, swimsuit manufacturers removed skirt panels and other attachments, while increasing production of the two-piece swimsuit with bare midriffs. At the same time, demand for all swimwear declined as there
12213-422: The United States allowed both international observers and the global press to observe Crossroads, creating an intense international interest in the new weapon and its testing. Réard never explained why he chose the name "Bikini" for the swimsuit. Various motivations have been attributed to his choosing of the name, including the idea that he hoped it would create "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar to
12390-644: The Winner, a mosaic in the floor of a Roman villa in Sicily that dates from the Diocletian period (286–305 AD), young women participate in weightlifting, discus throwing, and running ball games dressed in bikini-like garments (technically bandeaukinis in modern lexicon). The mosaic, found in the Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale , features ten maidens who have been anachronistically dubbed
12567-626: The X-2 (Development, Engineering and Tests) Group in the August 1944 reorganization. Safety and security required a remote, isolated and unpopulated area. The scientists also wanted a flat area to minimize secondary effects of the blast, and with little wind to spread radioactive fallout . Eight candidate sites were considered: the Tularosa Valley ; the Jornada del Muerto Valley ; the area southwest of Cuba, New Mexico , and north of Thoreau ; and
12744-425: The [atom] bomb, the bikini is small and devastating". Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion". Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men. Photographs of Bernardini and articles about the event were widely carried by the press. The International Herald Tribune alone ran nine stories on the event. French newspaper Le Figaro wrote, "People were craving
12921-424: The active material could be chemically recovered after a contained or failed explosion. Because there would be only one chance to carry out the test correctly, Bainbridge decided that a rehearsal should be carried out to allow the plans and procedures to be verified, and the instrumentation to be tested and calibrated. Oppenheimer was initially skeptical but gave permission, and he later agreed that it contributed to
13098-413: The aquatic sports of swimming , diving , artistic swimming , triathlon , and water polo . Some swimsuits are designed specifically for swimming competitions where they may be constructed of a special low resistance fabric that reduces skin drag. Most competitive swimmers wear special swimsuits including partial bodysuits , racerback styles, jammers and racing briefs to assist their glide through
13275-423: The area from the navel to the knee, and women's counterparts from the shoulder to the knee. Some swimmers use a specialized training suit called drag suits to artificially increase drag during practice. Drag suits are swimwear with an outer layer of looser fabric – often mesh or nylon – to increase resistance against the water and build up the swimmer's endurance. They come in a variety of styles, but most resemble
13452-446: The athlete in swimming competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the swimmer's forward motion efficiency. The tight fits allow for easy movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration, thus reducing drag. This also reduces the possibility that a high-forward dive will remove a diver's swimwear. Starting around 2000, to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have taken to designing them to replicate
13629-468: The atmosphere would ignite, and if so whether it would destroy just the state or incinerate the entire planet. This last result had been previously calculated by Bethe to be almost impossible, although for a while it had caused some of the scientists some anxiety. Bainbridge was furious with Fermi for frightening the guards, some of whom asked to be relieved; his own biggest fear was that nothing at all would happen, in which case he would have to return to
13806-658: The atomic missions. These included Captain Deak Parsons , the associate director of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the head of Project Alberta; Luis Alvarez , Harold Agnew , Bernard Waldman , Wolfgang Panofsky , and William Penney . The overcast sky obscured their view of the test site. At 05:29:21 MWT (11:29:21 GMT ) ± 15 seconds, the device exploded with an energy equivalent to 24.8 ± 2 kilotons of TNT (103.8 ± 8.4 TJ). The desert sand, largely made of silica , melted and became
13983-399: The beach and initially sold more swimsuits, it was Réard's description of the two-piece swimsuit as a bikini that stuck. As competing designs emerged, he declared in advertisements that a swimsuit could not be a genuine bikini "unless it could be pulled through a wedding ring." Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey . As subsequent history would show, the bikini was more than
14160-544: The bikini as a "capitalist decadence". The bikini also faced criticism from some feminists, who reviled it as a garment designed to suit men's tastes, and not those of women. Despite this backlash, however, the bikini still sold well throughout the mid to late 20th century. The bikini gained increased exposure and acceptance as film stars like Brigitte Bardot , Raquel Welch , and Ursula Andress wore it and were photographed on public beaches and seen in film. The minimalist bikini design became common in most Western countries by
14337-506: The bikini became the official uniform of women's Olympic beach volleyball . In 1999, the International Volleyball Federation (FIVB) standardized beach volleyball uniforms, with the bikini becoming the required uniform for women. That regulation bottom is called a "bun-hugger", and players names are often written on the back of the bottom. The uniform made its Olympic debut at Bondi Beach , Sydney during
14514-407: The bikini was explicitly banned from many other beauty pageants worldwide. Although some regarded the bikini and beauty contests as bringing freedom to women, they were opposed by some feminists as well as religious and cultural groups who objected to the degree of exposure of the female body. Paula Stafford was an Australian fashion designer credited with introducing the bikini to Australia; in
14691-400: The bikini was once considered controversial, facing opposition from a number of groups and being accepted only very slowly by the general public. In many countries, the design was banned from beaches and other public places: in 1949, France banned the bikini from being worn on its coastlines; Germany banned the bikini from public swimming pools until the 1970s, and some communist groups condemned
14868-591: The body through the 1930s, with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning. Women's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure . The 1932 Hollywood film Three on a Match featured a midriff-baring two-piece bathing suit. Actress Dolores del Río was the first major star to wear a two-piece women's bathing suit onscreen in Flying Down to Rio (1933). Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff-baring suits and tops. However, midriff fashion
15045-452: The body. The choice of swimsuit primarily depends on the activity of the wearer, from tight briefs for men for competitive diving and water polo to boardshorts for surfing; although ironically female competitive divers usually wear full one-piece suits while female competitive surfers often wear bikinis. Secondary considerations are personal and community standards of modesty depending on the location and social setting, how much sun protection
15222-706: The commander of the Second Air Force on September 7, 1944, lay at the northern end of the Alamogordo Bombing Range , in Socorro County near the towns of Carrizozo and San Antonio ( 33°40.636′N 106°28.525′W / 33.677267°N 106.475417°W / 33.677267; -106.475417 ). The Alamogordo Bombing Range was renamed the White Sands Proving Ground on July 9, 1945, one week before
15399-517: The contamination done by especially later US thermonuclear tests at Bikini and other Marshallese atolls. By making an analogy with words like bilingual and bilateral containing the Latin prefix " bi- " (meaning "two" in Latin), the word bikini was first back-derived as consisting of two parts, [ bi + kini ] by Rudi Gernreich , who introduced the monokini in 1964. Later swimsuit designs like
15576-416: The core in the natural uranium tamper plug, or "slug". Air gaps were filled with 0.5-mil (0.013 mm) gold foil, and the two halves of the plug were held together with uranium washers and screws which fit smoothly into the domed ends of the plug. To better understand the likely effect of a bomb dropped from a plane and detonated in air, and generate less nuclear fallout, the bomb was to be detonated atop
15753-426: The core – previously subcritical – to become supercritical. At the same time, the shock wave activated a small neutron source at the center of the core, thereby assuring that the chain reaction would begin in earnest immediately at the moment of compression. Such a complicated design required substantial research and experimentation in engineering and hydrodynamics , and in August 1944
15930-419: The design as simple as possible, a nearly solid spherical core was chosen rather than a hollow one, although calculations showed that a hollow core would be more efficient in its use of plutonium. The core was compressed to prompt super-criticality by the implosion generated by the high explosive lens. This design became known as a "Christy Core" or " Christy pit " after physicist Robert F. Christy , who made
16107-439: The design of a containment vessel for an unsuccessful explosion, known as "Jumbo", was assigned to Robert W. Henderson and Roy W. Carlson of the Los Alamos Laboratory's X-2A Section. The bomb would be placed into the heart of Jumbo, and if the bomb's detonation was unsuccessful the walls of Jumbo would not be breached, making it possible to recover the bomb's plutonium. Hans Bethe , Victor Weisskopf, and Joseph O. Hirschfelder made
16284-635: The directorship of physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer . The University of Chicago , Columbia University and the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley conducted other development work. Manhattan Project scientists had identified two fissile isotopes for potential use in bombs: uranium-235 and plutonium-239 . Uranium-235 became the basis of the Little Boy bomb design, first used (without prior testing) in
16461-554: The display of navels in Hollywood films. The National Legion of Decency , a Roman Catholic body overseeing American media content, also pressured Hollywood and foreign film producers to keep bikinis from being featured in Hollywood movies. As late as 1959 one of the United States' largest swimsuit designers, Anne Cole of the Anne Cole brand, said, "It's nothing more than a G-string. It's at the razor's edge of decency." The Hays Code
16638-474: The entire Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized to focus on this work. The idea of testing the implosion device was brought up in discussions at Los Alamos in January 1944 and attracted enough support for Oppenheimer to approach Groves. Groves gave approval, but he had concerns. The Manhattan Project had spent a great deal of money and effort to produce the plutonium, and he wanted to know whether there would be
16815-457: The evening games in 2012 London Olympics was so cold that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings. Earlier in 2012, FIVB had announced it would allow shorts (maximum length 3 cm (1.2 in) above the knee) and sleeved tops at the games. Richard Baker, the federation spokesperson, said that "many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible". Swimsuit A swimsuit
16992-408: The explosion at Bikini Atoll, that it was meant to be associated with the "exotic allure of the tropical Pacific", from the "comparison of the effects of a scantily clad woman to the atomic bomb," and the idea that Reard's design had out-done Heim's design and "split the atome ". Réard's advertising slogan was that the Bikini was "smaller than the smallest bathing suit in the world." The swimsuit's name
17169-458: The explosion. Conant wrote, "The enormity of the light and its length quite stunned me". Lawrence, 27 miles (43 km) away, wrote of being "enveloped with a warm brilliant yellow white light—from darkness to brilliant sunshine in an instant". Ralph Carlisle Smith, watching from Compania Hill, wrote: I was staring straight ahead with my open left eye covered by a welder's glass and my right eye remaining open and uncovered. Suddenly, my right eye
17346-410: The explosive energy of 25 kilotons of TNT (100 TJ ) ± 2 kilotons of TNT (8.4 TJ ), and a large cloud of fallout . Thousands of people lived closer to the test than would have been allowed under guidelines adopted for subsequent tests, but no one living near the test was evacuated before or afterward. The test site was declared a National Historic Landmark district in 1965 and listed on
17523-544: The exposure of people in swimsuits, especially to people of the opposite sex. In the United States, beauty pageants of women in bathing costumes became popular from the 1880s. However, such events were not regarded as respectable. Beauty contests became more respectable with the first modern Miss America contest held in 1921, though less respectable beauty contests continued to be held. Miss America ended its swimsuit competition in 2018. The 1907 Sydney bathing costume protests were carried out in Australia after an ordinance
17700-405: The fabrics and other materials used to make bikinis are an essential element of their design. Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey, but in the 1960s, Lycra became the common material. Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early 1970s. In a single fashion show in 1985, there were two-piece suits with cropped tank tops instead of
17877-434: The figure-hugging nature of these garments, glamour photography since the 1940s and 1950s has often featured people wearing swimsuits. This type of glamour photography eventually evolved into swimsuit photography exemplified by the annual Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue . Beauty contests also required contestants to wear form-fitting swimsuits. Louis Réard , a French automobile engineer and clothing designer, introduced
18054-431: The first bikini-clad Arab model on the cover of an Arabic magazine. Lebanese-Australian fashion designer Aheda Zanetti created the " burkini " as a modest option to the bikini, which has become very popular among Muslims. Rehab Shaaban, an Egyptian designer, tried an even more abaya -like design, but her design was banned due to safety reasons. While the name "bikini" was at first applied only to beachwear that revealed
18231-431: The first functional two-piece swimwear. Inspired by the introduction of females into Olympic swimming he designed a close-fitting costume with shorts for the bottom and short sleeves for the top. During the 1920s and 1930s, people began to shift from "taking in the water" to "taking in the sun", at bathhouses and spas, and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features. Rayon
18408-527: The ground, with concrete footings. Atop it was an oak platform and a corrugated iron shack open to the west. The gadget was hauled up with an electric winch. A truckload of mattresses was placed underneath in case the cable broke and the gadget fell. A crew then attached each of the 32 Model 1773 EBW detonators. Full assembly of the bomb was completed by 17:00 on July 14. The seven-man arming party, consisting of Bainbridge, Kistiakowsky, Joseph McKibben and four soldiers including Lieutenant Bush, drove out to
18585-439: The guide's costume at Ramsgate in 1811. The only difference is in the fabric the costumes are made of. Flannel, however, was a common fabric for sea bathing costumes as many believed the warmer fabric was necessary in cold water. In the 18th century women wore "bathing gowns" in the water; these were long dresses of fabrics that would not become transparent when wet, with weights sewn into the hems so that they would not rise up in
18762-407: The heat was reported as "being as hot as an oven" at the base camp. The observed colors of the illumination changed from purple to green and eventually to white. The roar of the shock wave took 40 seconds to reach the observers. It was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the mushroom cloud reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. Many observers recalled their amazement at the light from
18939-546: The immediate vicinity were the McDonald Ranch House and its ancillary buildings, which scientists used as a laboratory for testing bomb components. Fears of a fizzle prompted construction of "Jumbo", a steel containment vessel that could contain the plutonium, allowing it to be recovered; but ultimately Jumbo was not used in the test. On May 7, 1945, a rehearsal was conducted, during which 108 short tons (98 t) of high explosive spiked with radioactive isotopes
19116-482: The initial calculations, followed by a more detailed analysis by Henderson and Carlson. They drew up specifications for a steel sphere 13 to 15 feet (3.96 to 4.57 m) in diameter, weighing 150 short tons (140 t) and capable of handling a pressure of 50,000 pounds per square inch (340,000 kPa). After consulting with the steel companies and the railroads, Carlson produced a scaled-back cylindrical design that would be much easier to manufacture. Carlson identified
19293-965: The lava flats of the El Malpais National Monument , all in New Mexico; the San Luis Valley near the Great Sand Dunes National Monument in Colorado; the Desert Training Area and San Nicolas Island in Southern California; and the sand bars of Padre Island , Texas. The sites were surveyed by car and by air by Bainbridge, R. W. Henderson, Major W. A. Stevens and Major Peer de Silva . The site finally chosen, after consulting with Major General Uzal Ent ,
19470-406: The lead plane on a practice night raid accidentally knocked out the generator or otherwise doused the lights illuminating their target, they went in search of the lights, and since they had not been informed of the presence of the Trinity base camp, and it was lit, they bombed it instead. The accidental bombing damaged the stables and the carpentry shop, and a small fire resulted. Responsibility for
19647-514: The loss of "a billion dollars worth" of plutonium in the event the test failed. The origin of the code name "Trinity" for the test is unknown, but it is often attributed to Oppenheimer as a reference to the poetry of John Donne , which in turn references the Christian belief of the Trinity . In 1962, Groves wrote to Oppenheimer about the origin of the name, asking if he had chosen it because it
19824-442: The mid-1960s as both swimwear and underwear . By the late 20th century, it was widely used as sportswear in beach volleyball and bodybuilding . There are a number of modern stylistic variations of the design used for marketing purposes and as industry classifications, including monokini , microkini , tankini , trikini , pubikini , skirtini , thong , and g-string . A man's single piece brief swimsuit may also be called
20001-401: The middle, had been designed to contain the 5,000 lbs of high explosive in the atomic bomb while it was suspended in the center of the vessel. With the conventional bombs placed in the bottom of Jumbo, the resulting blast sent fragments flying in all directions as far as three quarters of a mile. Who authorized the destruction of Jumbo remains controversial. The rusting skeleton of Jumbo sits in
20178-474: The modern two-piece bikini on July 5, 1946. He introduced his design four days after the first test of a nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll . The newspapers were full of news about it and Reard hoped for the same with his design, hence the name. Through the 1950s, it was thought proper for the lower part of the bikini to come up high enough to cover the navel . From the 1960s on, the bikini shrank in all directions until it sometimes covered little more than
20355-475: The night to assess the results and reported that they were consistent with a perfect explosion. Assembly of the nuclear capsule began on July 13 at the McDonald Ranch House, where the master bedroom had been turned into a clean room . The polonium-beryllium "Urchin" initiator was assembled, and Louis Slotin placed it inside the two hemispheres of the plutonium core. Cyril Smith then placed
20532-400: The nipples and genitalia, although less revealing models giving more support to the breasts remained popular. In 1964, the monokini, also known as a "topless bikini " or "unikini"), was designed by Rudi Gernreich , consisting of only a brief, close-fitting bottom and two thin straps; it was the first women's topless swimsuit . Gernreich's revolutionary and controversial design included
20709-411: The observation plane, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit flown by Major Clyde "Stan" Shields, to get into position. The fireball of the conventional explosion was visible from Alamogordo Army Air Field 60 miles (100 km) away, but there was little shock at the base camp 10 miles (16 km) away. Shields thought that the explosion looked "beautiful", but it
20886-557: The other young females in the films. In 1965, a woman told Time that it was "almost square" not to wear a bikini; the magazine wrote two years later that "65% of the young set had already gone over". Raquel Welch 's fur bikini in One Million Years B.C. (1966) gave the world the most iconic bikini shot of all time and the poster image became an iconic moment in cinema history. Her deer skin bikini in One Million Years B.C. , advertised as "mankind's first bikini", (1966)
21063-405: The others. Ramsey chose zero (a complete dud ), Robert Oppenheimer chose 0.3 kilotons of TNT (1.3 TJ), Kistiakowsky 1.4 kilotons of TNT (5.9 TJ), and Bethe chose 8 kilotons of TNT (33 TJ). Rabi, the last to arrive, took the only remaining choice – 18 kilotons of TNT (75 TJ), which turned out to be the winner. Bethe later stated that his choice of 8 kt was exactly
21240-545: The parking lot at the Trinity site on the White Sands Missile Range, where it was moved in 1979. The development team also considered other methods of recovering active material in the event of a dud explosion. One idea was to cover it with a cone of sand. Another was to suspend the bomb in a tank of water. As with Jumbo, it was decided not to proceed with these means of containment. The CM-10 (Chemistry and Metallurgy) group at Los Alamos also studied how
21417-554: The power of fashion". By 1988 the bikini made up nearly 20% of swimsuit sales, more than any other model in the US, though one-piece suits made a comeback during the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1997, Miss Maryland Jamie Fox became the first contestant in 50 years to compete in a two-piece swimsuit at the Miss America Pageant . Actresses in action films like Blue Crush (2002) and Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003) made
21594-637: The rain had gone. There were some communication problems: the shortwave radio frequency for communicating with the B-29s was shared with the Voice of America , and the FM radios shared a frequency with a railroad freight yard in San Antonio , Texas. Two circling B-29s observed the test, with Shields again flying the lead plane. They carried members of Project Alberta who would carry out airborne measurements during
21771-485: The range of novelty fabrics available to designers which meant suits could be made to fit like a second skin without heavy linings. "The advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini," wrote Kelly Killoren Bensimon , a former model and author of The Bikini Book , "It didn't sag, it didn't bag, and it concealed and revealed. It wasn't so much like lingerie anymore." Increased reliance on stretch fabric led to simplified construction. This fabric allowed designers to create
21948-484: The rate of plutonium-239, and the extra neutrons thereby released made it likely that plutonium in a gun-type fission weapon would detonate too soon after a critical mass was formed, producing a " fizzle "—a nuclear explosion many times smaller than a full explosion. The Thin Man design would therefore not work. Project scientists then turned to a more technically difficult implosion design . In September 1943, mathematician John von Neumann had proposed surrounding
22125-420: The rehearsal test revealed practical concerns as well. Over 100 vehicles were used for the rehearsal test, but it was realized more would be required for the main test, and they would need better roads and repair facilities. More radios and more telephone lines were required. Lines needed to be buried to prevent damage by vehicles. A teletype was installed to allow better communication with Los Alamos. A town hall
22302-470: The risqué publicity associated with the bikini by posing for photographs wearing them— pin-ups of Hayworth and Williams in costume were especially widely distributed in the United States. In 1950, Elvira Pagã walked at the Rio Carnival , Brazil in a golden bikini, starting the bikini tradition of the carnival. In Europe, 17-year-old Brigitte Bardot wore scanty bikinis (by contemporary standards) in
22479-427: The scientists concerned about a premature detonation, as had happened with a model of the electrical system. A crucial favorable weather report came in at 04:45, and the final twenty-minute countdown began at 05:10, read by Samuel Allison . A rocket launched at 5:25 to signal five minutes before detonation; another rocket fired at 5:29. At 5:29:15, a switch in the control bunker started the detonation timer. By 05:30
22656-442: The sea, men swam in the nude, where the practice was common. Those who did not swim in the nude stripped to their underwear. The English practice of men swimming in the nude was banned in the United Kingdom in 1860. Drawers, or caleçons as they were called, came into use in the 1860s. Even then there were many who protested against them and wanted to remain in the nude. Francis Kilvert described men's bathing suits coming into use in
22833-667: The siding at Pope, where it was loaded on a large trailer and towed 25 miles (40 km) across the desert by crawler tractors . At the time, it was the heaviest item ever shipped by rail. For many of the Los Alamos scientists, Jumbo was "the physical manifestation of the lowest point in the Laboratory's hopes for the success of an implosion bomb." By the time it arrived, the reactors at the Hanford Engineer Works produced plutonium in quantity, and Oppenheimer
23010-405: The silver plating developed blisters that had to be filed down and covered with gold foil; later cores were plated with nickel instead. A trial assembly of the bomb, without active components or explosive lenses, was carried out by the bomb assembly team headed by Norris Bradbury at Los Alamos on July 3. It was driven to Trinity and back. A set of explosive lenses arrived on July 7, followed by
23187-400: The simple pleasures of the sea and the sun. For women, wearing a bikini signaled a kind of second liberation. There was really nothing sexual about this. It was instead a celebration of freedom and a return to the joys in life." Heim's atome was more in keeping with the sense of propriety of the 1940s, but Réard's design won the public's attention. Although Heim's design was the first worn on
23364-484: The site proved too great for the horses, so they were repurposed for polo playing, and the MPs resorted to using jeeps and trucks for transportation. Maintenance of morale among men working long hours under harsh conditions along with dangerous reptiles and insects was a challenge. Bush strove to improve the food and accommodation and to provide organized games and nightly movies. Throughout 1945, other personnel arrived at
23541-407: The skin of sea-based animals, sharks in particular. In July 2009, FINA voted to ban non-textile (non-woven) swimsuits in competitive events from 2010. The new policy was implemented to combat the issues associated with performance-enhancing swimsuits, hindering the ability to accurately measure the performance of swimmers. Subsequently, the new ruling states that men's swimsuits may maximally cover
23718-534: The solid pit design a reality after it was initially proposed by Edward Teller . Of the several allotropes of plutonium , the metallurgists preferred the malleable δ ( delta ) phase . This was stabilized at room temperature by alloying it with gallium . Two equal hemispheres of plutonium-gallium alloy were plated with silver, and designated by serial numbers HS-1 and HS-2. The 6.19-kilogram (13.6 lb) radioactive core generated 15 W of heat, which warmed it up to about 100 to 110 °F (38 to 43 °C), and
23895-486: The southeast. Like the rest of the Alamogordo Bombing Range, it had been acquired by the government in 1942. The patented land had been condemned and grazing rights suspended. Scientists used this as a laboratory for testing bomb components. Bainbridge and Davalos drew up plans for a base camp with accommodation and facilities for 160 personnel, along with the technical infrastructure to support
24072-399: The spectacle, referred to it as Miss World , a name Morley registered as a trademark. The winner was Kiki Håkansson of Sweden, who was crowned in a bikini. After the crowning, Håkansson was condemned by Pope Pius XII , while Spain and Ireland threatened to withdraw from the pageant. In 1952, bikinis were banned from the pageant and replaced by evening gowns . As a result of the controversy,
24249-401: The success of the Trinity test. A 20-foot-high (6 m) wooden platform was constructed 800 yards (730 m) to the southeast of Trinity ground zero . The high explosive was piled in its wooden shipping boxes in the shape of a pseudo-octagonal prism on it. The charge consisted of 89.75 short tons (81.42 t) tons of TNT and 14.91 short tons (13.53 t) tons of Composition B (with
24426-469: The surrounding region should that prove necessary. They had enough vehicles to move 450 people to safety and had food and supplies to last them for two days. Arrangements were made for Alamogordo Army Air Field to provide accommodation. Groves warned Governor of New Mexico John J. Dempsey that martial law might have to be declared in the southwestern part of the state. Shelters were established 10,000 yards (9,100 m) due north, west, and south of
24603-405: The tamper had cooled during the night in the desert. By leaving the capsule in contact with the tamper, the temperatures equalized and, in a few minutes, the capsule had slipped completely into the tamper. The eye bolt was then removed from the capsule and replaced with a threaded uranium plug, a boron disk was placed on top of the capsule (to complete the thin spherical shell of plastic boron around
24780-439: The tamper), an aluminum plug was screwed into the hole in the pusher (aluminum shell surrounding the tamper), and the two remaining high explosive lenses were installed. Finally, the upper Dural polar cap was bolted into place. The assembly of active material and high explosives was finished at 17:45 hours on 13 July. The gadget was hoisted to the top of the tower. The tower stood on four legs extending 20 feet (6.1 m) into
24957-458: The test from Compania Hill (also called Compaña Hill or Cerro de la Colorado), about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of the tower. Photographic film was placed in nearby towns to detect radioactive contamination, and seismographs were placed in Tucson , Denver , and Chihuahua, Mexico to determine how far the explosion could be sensed. The observers set up a betting pool on the results of
25134-532: The test. Despite the criterion that the site be isolated, nearly half a million people lived within 150 miles (240 km) of the test site; soon after the Trinity test, the Manhattan Project's chief medical officer, Colonel Stafford L. Warren , recommended that future tests be conducted at least 150 miles from populated areas. The only structures in the vicinity were the McDonald Ranch House and its ancillary buildings, about 2 miles (3.2 km) to
25311-461: The test. A construction firm from Lubbock, Texas , built the barracks, officers' quarters, mess hall and other basic facilities. The requirements expanded and by July 1945 250 people worked at the Trinity test site. On the weekend of the test, there were 425 present. Lieutenant Bush's twelve-man MP unit arrived at the site from Los Alamos on December 30, 1944. This unit established initial security checkpoints and horse patrols. The distances around
25488-418: The test. Teller was the most optimistic, predicting 45 kilotons of TNT (190 TJ). He wore gloves to protect his hands and sunglasses underneath the welding goggles that the government had supplied everyone with. He was one of the few scientists to watch the test (with eye protection), instead of following orders to lie on the ground with his back turned. He also brought suntan lotion, which he shared with
25665-526: The total explosive power of approximately 108 tons of TNT (450 GJ)), actually a few tons more than the stated "100-tons". Kistiakowsky assured Bainbridge that the explosives used were not susceptible to shock. This was proven correct when some boxes fell off the elevator lifting them up to the platform. Flexible tubing was threaded through the pile of boxes of explosives. A radioactive slug from Hanford with 1,000 curies (37 TBq ) of beta ray activity and 400 curies (15 TBq) of gamma ray activity
25842-484: The tower to investigate. Mary Argo was the only female staff member to be officially invited to watch the test, which she did. Joan Hinton snuck in to watch the test despite not being invited. The scientists wanted good visibility, low humidity, light winds at low altitude, and westerly winds at high altitude for the test. The best weather was predicted between July 18 and 21, but the Potsdam Conference
26019-402: The tower to perform the final arming shortly after 22:00 on July 15. In the final two weeks before the test, some 250 personnel from Los Alamos were at work at the Trinity Site, and Lieutenant Bush's command had ballooned to 125 men guarding and maintaining the base camp. Another 160 men under Major T.O. Palmer were stationed outside the area with vehicles to evacuate the civilian population in
26196-740: The tower, each with its own chief: Robert Wilson at N-10,000, John Manley at W-10,000 and Frank Oppenheimer at S-10,000. Many other observers were around 20 miles (32 km) away, and some others were scattered at different distances, some in more informal situations. Richard Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the goggles provided, relying on a truck windshield to screen out harmful ultraviolet wavelengths. Bainbridge asked Groves to keep his VIP list down to ten. He chose himself, Oppenheimer, Richard Tolman , Vannevar Bush , James Conant , Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , Charles Lauritsen , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Sir Geoffrey Taylor , and Sir James Chadwick . The VIPs viewed
26373-572: The two-piece "the millennial equivalent of the power suit ", according to Gina Bellafonte of The New York Times . According to Beth Dincuff Charleston, research associate at the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "The bikini represents a social leap involving body consciousness, moral concerns, and sexual attitudes." By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a $ 811 million business annually, according to
26550-413: The usual skimpy bandeaux, suits that resembled bikinis from the front and one-pieces from the back, suspender straps , ruffles , and deep navel-baring cutouts. Metal and stone jewelry pieces are now often used to dress up look and style according to tastes. To meet the fast pace of demands, some manufacturers now offer made-to-order bikinis ready in as few as seven minutes. The world's most expensive bikini
26727-403: The value calculated by Segrè, and he was swayed by Segrè's authority over that of a more junior [but unnamed] member of Segrè's group who had calculated 20 kt. Calculations stated that even if the mechanical and electrical systems did not fail, the likelihood of a non-optimal test was greater than 10%. Enrico Fermi offered to take wagers among the top physicists and military present on whether
26904-667: The water thus gaining a speed advantage. For diving in water temperatures above 25 °C (77 °F), special bodysuits called " dive skins " are worn. These suits are made from spandex and provide little thermal protection, but they protect the skin from jellyfish stings, sunburn, and abrasion. This kind of suit is also known as a 'Stinger Suit'. Some divers wear a dive skin under a wetsuit, which allows easier donning and (for those who experience skin problems from neoprene) provides additional comfort. Unlike regular swimsuits, which are designed mainly for aesthetic appearances, swimsuits intended to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist
27081-507: The water. The men's swim suit, a rather form-fitting wool garment with long sleeves and legs similar to long underwear , was developed and would change little for a century. In the 19th century, the woman's double suit was common, comprising a gown from shoulder to knees plus a set of trousers with leggings going down to the ankles. In the Victorian era , popular beach resorts were commonly equipped with bathing machines designed to avoid
27258-544: The wearer's crotch area. For males, swimwear today usually leaves the upper body uncovered, while swimsuits for females usually cover at least the nipples, except in the case of a topless swimsuit . Prior to the 1930s, swimsuits were typically made of wool ; however, such suits did not hug the body and became heavy with water. Rayon began to be used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic, with jersey and silk also sometimes being used. In
27435-419: The wearer's navel, today the fashion industry considers any two-piece swimsuit a bikini. Modern bikini fashions are characterized by a simple, brief design: two triangles of fabric that form a bra and cover the woman's breasts and a third that forms a panty cut below the navel that covers the groin and the intergluteal cleft . Bikinis can and have been made out of almost every possible clothing material, and
27612-499: The winter, the honeymoon season. For more coverage, designers Shivan Bhatiya and Narresh Kukreja invented the bikini- saree popularised by TV anchor Mandira Bedi . By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the Chinese bikini industry became a serious international threat for the Brazilian bikini industry. Huludao , Liaoning , China set the world record for the largest bikini parade in 2012, with 1,085 participants and
27789-509: Was a name common to rivers and peaks in the West and would not attract attention, and elicited this reply: I did suggest it, but not on that ground ... Why I chose the name is not clear, but I know what thoughts were in my mind. There is a poem of John Donne, written just before his death, which I know and love. From it a quotation: "As West and East / In all flatt Maps – and I am one – are one, / So death doth touch
27966-673: Was abandoned by the mid-1960s, and with it the prohibition of female navel exposure, as well as other restrictions. The influence of the National Legion of Decency also waned by the 1960s. Increasingly common glamour shots of popular actresses and models on either side of the Atlantic played a large part in bringing the bikini into the mainstream. During the 1950s, Hollywood stars such as Ava Gardner , Rita Hayworth , Lana Turner , Elizabeth Taylor , Tina Louise , Marilyn Monroe , Esther Williams , and Betty Grable took advantage of
28143-496: Was arrested for indecent exposure because her swimsuit showed arms, legs and the neck. Kellerman changed the suit to have long arms and legs and a collar, still keeping the close fit that revealed the shapes underneath. She later starred in several movies , including one about her life. She marketed a line of bathing suits and her style of one-piece suits came to be known as "the Annette Kellerman". The Annette Kellerman
28320-644: Was banned in Kalimantan . Indian women generally wear bikinis when they vacation abroad or in Goa without the family. But, despite the conservative ideas prevalent in India, bikinis also become more popular in summer when women, from Bollywood stars to the middle class, take up swimming, often in a public space. A lot of tankinis , shorts and single-piece swimsuits are sold in the summer, along with real bikinis and bandeaukinis . The maximum sales for bikinis happen in
28497-459: Was blinded by a light which appeared instantaneously all about without any build up of intensity. My left eye could see the ball of fire start up like a tremendous bubble or nob-like mushroom. I dropped the glass from my left eye almost immediately and watched the light climb upward. The light intensity fell rapidly, hence did not blind my left eye but it was still amazingly bright. It turned yellow, then red, and then beautiful purple . At first it had
28674-407: Was built to allow for large conferences and briefings, and the mess hall had to be upgraded. Because dust thrown up by vehicles interfered with some of the instrumentation, 20 miles (32 km) of road was sealed. The term " gadget "—a laboratory euphemism for a bomb —gave the laboratory's weapon physics division, "G Division", its name in August 1944. At that time it did not refer specifically to
28851-437: Was confident that there would be enough for a second test. The use of Jumbo would interfere with the gathering of data on the explosion, the primary objective of the test. An explosion of more than 500 tons of TNT (2,100 GJ) would vaporize the steel and make it difficult to measure the thermal effects. Even 100 tons of TNT (420 GJ) would send fragments flying, presenting a hazard to personnel and measuring equipment. It
29028-492: Was considered the most offensive style of swimsuit in the 1920s and became the focus of censorship efforts. Despite opposition from some groups, the form-fitting style proved popular. It was not long before swimwear started to shrink further. At first arms were exposed and then legs up to mid-thigh. Necklines receded from around the neck down to around the top of the bosom. The development of new fabrics allowed for new varieties of more comfortable and practical swimwear. Due to
29205-651: Was designed in February 2006 by Susan Rosen; containing 150 carats (30 g) of diamond, it was valued at £20 million. There is a range of distinct bikini styles available — string/tie-side bikinis , monokinis (topless or top and bottom connected), trikinis (three pieces instead of two), tankinis ( tank top , bikini bottom), camikinis ( camisole top , bikini bottom), bandeaukinis ( bandeau top, bikini bottom), skirtinis (bikini top, skirt bottom), microkinis, sling bikinis (or suspender bikinis), thong and g-string bikinis, and teardrop bikinis. Bikinis have become
29382-404: Was detonated. Some 425 people were present on the weekend of the Trinity test. Observers included Vannevar Bush , James Chadwick , James B. Conant , Thomas Farrell , Enrico Fermi , Hans Bethe , Richard Feynman , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Leslie Groves , Robert Oppenheimer, Frank Oppenheimer , Geoffrey Taylor , Richard Tolman , Edward Teller , and John von Neumann . The Trinity bomb released
29559-470: Was dissolved, and Hempelmann poured the solution into the tubing. The test was scheduled for May 5 but was postponed for two days to allow for more equipment to be installed. Requests for further postponements had to be refused because they would have affected the schedule for the main test. The detonation time was set for 04:00 Mountain War Time (MWT), on May 7, but there was a 37-minute delay to allow
29736-459: Was due to start on July 16 and President Harry S. Truman wanted the test to be conducted before the conference began. It was therefore scheduled for July 16, the earliest date at which the bomb components would be available. The detonation was initially planned for 04:00 MWT but was postponed because of rain and lightning from early that morning. It was feared that the danger from radiation and fallout would be increased by rain, and lightning had
29913-481: Was free to make its own laws. For example, the Bath Corporation official bathing dress code of 1737 prescribed, for men: It is Ordered Established and Decreed by this Corporation that no Male person above the age of ten years shall at any time hereafter go into any Bath or Baths within this City by day or by night without a Pair of Drawers and a Waistcoat on their bodies. In rivers, lakes, streams and
30090-731: Was hardly felt at 15,000 feet (4,600 m). Herbert L. Anderson practiced using a converted M4 Sherman tank lined with lead to approach the 5-foot-deep (1.5 m) and 30-foot-wide (9 m) blast crater and take a soil sample, although the radioactivity was low enough to allow several hours of unprotected exposure. An electrical signal of unknown origin caused the explosion to go off 0.25 seconds early, ruining experiments that required split-second timing. The piezoelectric gauges developed by Anderson's team correctly indicated an explosion of 108 tons of TNT, but Luis Alvarez and Waldman's airborne condenser gauges were far less accurate. In addition to uncovering scientific and technological issues,
30267-415: Was later described as a "definitive look of the 1960s". Her role wearing the leather bikini made Welch a fashion icon and the photo of her in the bikini became a best-selling pinup poster. Stretch nylon bikini briefs and bras complemented the adolescent boutique fashions of the 1960s, allowing those to be minimal. DuPont introduced lycra (DuPont's name for spandex ) in the same decade. Spandex expanded
30444-486: Was not much interest in going to the beach, especially in Europe. In the summer of 1946, Western Europeans enjoyed their first war-free summer in many years. French designers sought to deliver fashions that matched the liberated mood of the people. Fabric was still in short supply, and in an endeavor to resurrect swimwear sales, two French designers – Jacques Heim and Louis Réard – almost simultaneously launched new two-piece swimsuit designs in 1946. Heim launched
30621-458: Was proposed that would have required males to wear a skirt-like tunic. In 1935, a similar ordinance was proposed, requiring males to wear the Spooner bathing costume instead of the 'disgraceful' swim trunks . In 1907, the swimmer Annette Kellerman from Australia visited the United States as an "underwater ballerina", a version of synchronized swimming involving diving into glass tanks. She
30798-403: Was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public. Hollywood endorsed the new glamor in films like 1949's Neptune's Daughter in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as "Double Entendre" and "Honey Child". Wartime production during World War II required vast amounts of cotton, silk, nylon, wool, leather, and rubber. In 1942,
30975-411: Was therefore decided not to use it. Instead, it was hoisted up a steel tower 800 yards (732 m) from the explosion, where it could be used for a subsequent test. In the end, Jumbo survived the explosion, although its tower did not. Jumbo was destroyed on April 16, 1946, when an Army ordnance team detonated eight 500 lb bombs in the bottom of the steel container. Jumbo, with its steel banding around
31152-420: Was typically capitalized for several years after its coining. It has been frequently cited as a major example of a "psychological link between atomic destruction and sexuality" in popular culture, which includes the stenciling of Rita Hayworth onto one of the bombs detonated at Crossroads, and its persistence in language has been argued as having "trivialized and downplayed the reality of nuclear testing," given
31329-399: Was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but durability issues, especially when wet, proved problematic. Jersey and silk were also sometimes used. By the 1930s, manufacturers had lowered necklines in the back, removed sleeves, and tightened the sides. With the development of new clothing materials, particularly latex and nylon , swimsuits gradually began hugging
#919080