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116-519: In bilingual education , students are taught in two (or more) languages. It is distinct from learning a second language as a subject because both languages are used for instruction in different content areas like math, science, and history. The time spent in each language depends on the model. For example, some models focus on providing education in both languages throughout a student's entire education while others gradually transition to education in only one language. The ultimate goal of bilingual education

232-500: A bimodal bilingual program , students are taught in two languages in two different modalities, typically a spoken/written language and a signed language. This type of program is common at schools serving deaf and hard of hearing students. In transitional (early-exit) bilingual education programs, the goal is to provide education in a child's native language to ensure that students do not fall behind in content areas such as mathematics, science, and social studies while they are learning

348-551: A maintenance bilingual education program , the goal is for students to continue to learn about and in both languages for the majority of their education. Students in a maintenance bilingual education program should graduate being able to have a discussion about any content area in either language. Two common forms of maintenance bilingual education are two-way/ dual language immersion and developmental (late-exit) bilingual education. Both programs are considered language immersion programs. A program that utilizes two languages, known as

464-521: A "dispenser of knowledge". Minimal guidance is regarded as controversial and has been described as a caricature that does not exist in practice, and that critics have combined too many different approaches some of which may include more guidance, under the label of minimal guidance. However, there is some evidence that in certain domains, and under certain circumstances, a minimal guidance approach can lead to successful learning if sufficient practice opportunities are built in. One strand of criticism of

580-406: A Vygotskian perspective, talk and action work together with the sociocultural fabric of the writing event to shape a child's construction of awareness and performance. Dialogue may range from casual talk to deliberate explanations of features of written language. The talk embedded in the actions of the literacy event shapes the child's learning as the tutor regulates his or her language to conform to

696-503: A concept by providing support. The support can take many forms such as outlines, recommended documents, storyboards , or key questions. There are three essential features of scaffolding that facilitate learning. The support and guidance provided to the learner are compared to the scaffolds in building construction where the scaffolds provide both "adjustable and temporal" support to the building under construction. The support and guidance provided to learners facilitate internalization of

812-415: A desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, error analysis, stages and order of acquisition, structuralism (approach that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other according to their common characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages are examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes

928-460: A difficult problem and provide constructive feedback to the students. According to Van Lier, this type of scaffolding can also be referred to as contingent scaffolding. The type and amount of support needed is dependent on the needs of the students during the time of instruction. Unfortunately, applying scaffolding correctly and consistently can be difficult when the classroom is large and students have various needs. Scaffolding can be applied to

1044-441: A dual language program, typically places students in classrooms with a mixture of native speakers for each language. One popular approach to dual language programs is the 90/10 model, where in the early grades 90% of instruction is conducted in the student's native language and 10% is taught in their second language. As the student advances, this proportion changes until an equal amount of time is spent on both languages. Another model,

1160-473: A few common scaffolding strategies: These tools organize information in a way that helps learners understand new and complex content. Examples of advanced organizers are: Instructors use modelling to: These types of instructional materials are commonly implemented in mathematics and science classes and include three key features: 1. Problem formation : A principle or theory is introduced. 2. Step-by-step example : A worked example, that demonstrates how

1276-462: A few of the researchers who have dedicated time to this subject. They have worked to determine what qualities make a "good language learner". Some of their common findings are that a good language learner uses positive learning strategies, is an active learner who is constantly searching for meaning. Also a good language learner demonstrates a willingness to practice and use the language in real communication. He also monitors himself and his learning, has

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1392-486: A first experience with the material. A first, experience with the material provides students with a "need to know", which allows learners to reflect on prior experiences with the content, which can help learners construct meaning from instruction. Worked examples are guiding tools that can act as a "need to know" for students. Worked examples provide students with straightforward goals, step-by-step instructions as well as ready-to-solve problems that can help students develop

1508-425: A first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or stuck as it were with ungrammatical items. ( Fossilization occurs when language errors become a permanent feature.) The difference between learners may be significant. As noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete native-like control of

1624-417: A greater effect on scaffolded learning, but is not a guarantee of more learning. The efficacy of higher amount of guidance is dependent on the level of detail and guidance applicability. Having multiple types of guidance (i.e. worked examples, feedback) can cause them to interact and reinforce each other. Multiple conditions do not guarantee greater learning, as certain types of guidance can be extraneous to

1740-413: A higher level. Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which computers replace the teachers as the experts or guides, and students can be guided with web links, online tutorials, or help pages. Educational software can help students follow a clear structure and allows students to plan properly. Silliman and Wilkinson distinguish two types of scaffolding: 'supportive scaffolding' that characterises

1856-407: A knowledge of second-language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults." SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. One of the dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in

1972-405: A lack of worked examples , minimal guidance leads to reduced opportunities for student practice, and minimal guidance happens inevitably in project-based learning as a result of the teacher having to manage too many student projects at one time. One of the consequences of this reconceptualization is abandoning the rigid explicit instruction versus minimal guidance dichotomy and replacing it with

2088-478: A majority of the students, but the teacher is left with the responsibility to identify the need for additional scaffolding. In contrast with contingent or soft scaffolding, embedded or hard scaffolding is planned in advance to help students with a learning task that is known in advance to be difficult. For example, when students are discovering the formula for the Pythagorean Theorem in math class,

2204-504: A means of fostering student discovery through repeated practice. If instead we entertain the possibility that instruction and discovery are not oil and water, that instruction and discovery coexist and can work together, we may find a solution to this impasse in the field. Perhaps our way out of the instructivist-constructivist impasse thus involves not a "middle ground" compromise but an alternative conceptualization of instruction and discovery. Instructional scaffolding can be thought of as

2320-401: A more balanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed. The defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve

2436-401: A more flexible approach based on differentiating specific goals of various learner activities in complex learning. There have been several attempts to move beyond the minimal guidance versus fully guided instruction controversy. These are often developed by introducing the variable of learner expertise and using that to suggest adapting instructional styles depending on the level of expertise of

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2552-426: A plethora of Indigenous persons who attended these schools throughout the country. However, learning from events such as these, has helped spread awareness of language revitalization. Bilingual programs for language revitalization are tricky; each language is different, and there is a lack of educational resources and training for teachers in that specific language. Furthermore, there is not enough research done on what

2668-424: A popular source in the linguistics field. See below Table 1. Collecting the number of second language speakers of every language is extremely difficult and even the best estimates contain guess work. The data below are from ethnologue.com as of June 2013. Instructional scaffolding Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support

2784-469: A recent study recorded verbal scaffolding between mothers and their 3- and 4-year-old children as they played together. Then, when the children were six years old, they underwent several measures of executive function , such as working memory and goal-directed play. The study found that the children's working memory and language skills at six years of age were related to the amount of verbal scaffolding provided by mothers at age three. In particular, scaffolding

2900-402: A second language programs that only require teachers to have English fluency and literacy. Bilingual education can also support language revitalization efforts in countries with endangered languages . These dormant languages are heavily intertwined with the culture, place and identity of the subsequent community, so the creation of bilingual programs to help re-awaken the endangered languages

3016-566: A second language for several years. In many English-speaking countries, standardized tests are in English, so there is a push to maximize the time spent learning English. Proponents of this framing advocate for Structured English Immersion in which students spend the majority of their day learning about English and in English with scaffolded supports based on their current English knowledge. Bilingual education requires teachers to be fluent and literate in both languages, as compared to English as

3132-440: A skill, which also relates to the amount of guidance being given. Research on intelligent-tutoring systems suggests that immediate feedback on errors is a great strategy to promote learning. As the learner is able to integrate the feedback from short-term memory into the overall learning- and problem-solving task, the longer the wait on feedback and the harder it is for the learner to make this integration. Yet, in another study it

3248-427: A strong drive to communicate, and has a good ear and good listening skills. Özgür and Griffiths have designed an experiment in 2013 about the relationship between different motivations and second language acquisition. They looked at four types of motivations—intrinsic (inner feelings of learner), extrinsic (reward from outside), integrative (attitude towards learning), and instrumental (practical needs). According to

3364-428: A stronger understanding from instruction. Guiding has a key role in both constructivism and 'instructivism'. For instructivists, the timing of guidance is immediate, either at the beginning or when the learner makes a mistake, whereas in constructivism it can be delayed. It has been found that immediate feedback can lead to working memory load as it does not take in consideration the process of gradual acquisition of

3480-535: Is fluency and literacy in both languages through a variety of strategies such as translanguaging and recasting. There are several different ways to categorize bilingual education models, one of the most common approaches being to separate programs by their end goal. This is the approach used below, though it is not the only possible approach. For a more comprehensive review of different approaches to bilingual education worldwide see bilingual education by country or region and intercultural bilingual education . In

3596-440: Is a hypothesis that when a child is going through puberty, that is the time that accents start . Before a child goes through puberty, the chemical processes in the brain are more geared towards language and social communication. Whereas after puberty, the ability for learning a language without an accent has been rerouted to function in another area of the brain—most likely in the frontal lobe area promoting cognitive functions, or in

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3712-407: Is a method of moderating the cognitive load of a learner. In scaffolding, learners can only be moved toward their learning goals if cognitive load is held in check by properly administered support. Traditional teachers tend to give a higher level of deductive, diadactic instruction, with each piece of a complex task being broken down. This teacher-centered approach, consequently, tends to increase

3828-436: Is a strategy that emphasizes using all languages a student knows to support their learning. One example of this is allowing students to express themselves in either or both languages when discussing different academic content. Practicing translanguaging can help students more easily switch between languages. Language separation in a classroom refers to assigning a specific language for a particular time, content, or activity with

3944-456: Is an important tool in the ZPD. In a dialogue, a child's unsystematic, disorganized, and spontaneous concepts are met with the more systematic, logical and rational concepts of the skilled helper. Empirical research suggests that the benefits of scaffolding are not only useful during a task, but can extend beyond the immediate situation in order to influence future cognitive development. For instance,

4060-405: Is changing the level of support to suit the cognitive potential of the child. Over the course of a teaching session, one can adjust the amount of guidance to fit the child's potential level of performance. More support is offered when a child is having difficulty with a particular task and, over time, less support is provided as the child makes gains on the task. Ideally, scaffolding works to maintain

4176-411: Is effective. The emphasis is on the up-front explicit delivery of instruction. Instructionism is often contrasted with constructivism. Both of them use the term guidance as means to support learning, and how it can be used more effectively. The difference in the use of guidance is found in the philosophical assumptions regarding the nature of the learner, but they also differ in their views around

4292-618: Is explicit correction, where the teacher directly points out the error in the student's statement. This section focuses on the effects of bilingual education specifically, see Cognitive effects of bilingualism for information about the effects of bilingualism or multilingualism . The most obvious benefit of bilingual education is proficiency and literacy in two (or more languages). Fluency in multiple languages can lead to increased employment options as well as create more opportunities for intercultural communication. Bilingual education can also support minority language speakers by communicating

4408-529: Is extremely beneficial. Generally speaking, the official primary and secondary languages of a country are favored for bilingual programs, but there have been emerging bilingual programs to re-introduce an endangered language to a community. These education policies are fundamental to a communities' and next generation's identity development. An example that hindered this is that of the residential schools of Canada. Children were punished severely for speaking their mother-tongue, which has caused generational trauma among

4524-430: Is facilitated. A scaffolding format investigated by Bruner and his postdoctoral student Anat Ninio , whose scaffolding processes are described in detail, is joint picture-book reading. By contrast, bed-time stories and read-alouds are examples of book-centered parenting events without scaffolding interaction. Scaffolding is inspired by Lev Vygotsky 's concept of an expert assisting a novice, or an apprentice. Scaffolding

4640-557: Is for English-language learners to learn English after having acquired one or more native languages. ESL is a supplementary, comprehensive English language learning program common in English-speaking countries and countries where English has an important role in communication as a result of colonialism or globalization. One common approach in ESL programs is sheltered English instruction (SEI). Translanguaging or language mixing

4756-475: Is little empirical evidence for the effectiveness of learner-centered approaches when compared to more teacher-led approaches, and this is despite extensive encouragement and support from national and international education agencies including UNESCO , UNICEF , and the World Bank . Further more specific criticisms include the following: minimal guidance is inefficient compared to explicit instruction due to

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4872-623: Is more than simply a model of instruction. Learner support in scaffolding is known as guidance. While it takes on various forms and styles, the basic form of guidance is any type of interaction from the instructor that is intended to aid and/or improve student learning. While this a broad definition, the role and amount of guidance is better defined by the instructor's approach. Instructionists and constructionists approach giving guidance within their own instructional frameworks. Scaffolding involves presenting learners with proper guidance that moves them towards their learning goals. Providing guidance

4988-432: Is more valuable should no longer linger with the help of these bilingual programs. Second language The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen as part of his Monitor Theory . According to Krashen, the acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In

5104-557: Is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning , which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies. Instructional scaffolding provides sufficient support to promote learning when concepts and skills are being first introduced to students. These supports may include resource, compelling task, templates and guides, and/or guidance on

5220-477: Is the field between what a learner can do on their own (expert stage) and the most that can be achieved with the support of a knowledgeable peer or instructor (pedagogical stage). Vygotsky was convinced that a child could be taught any subject efficiently using scaffolding practices by implementing the scaffolds through the zone of proximal development. Students are escorted and monitored through learning activities that function as interactive conduits to get them to

5336-483: Is the idea that learners, regardless of their level of expertise, will learn best through discovering and/or constructing information for themselves in contrast to more teacher-led classrooms which in contrast are described as more passive learning. A safe approach is to offer three options. The teacher designs two options based on what most students may like to do. The third choice is a blank check – students propose their own product or performance. In this approach,

5452-456: Is to help students transition to mainstream, single language classrooms, the use of the student's primary language as a vehicle to develop literacy skills and acquire academic knowledge also prevents the degeneration of a child's native language. English as a second language (ESL) programs are not considered bilingual education programs because they do not aim to have students become bi-literate in two (or more) languages. The goal of ESL programs

5568-534: Is widely used in a variety of contexts in these countries, and signs are normally printed in both Arabic and French. A similar phenomenon exists in post-Soviet states such as Ukraine , Uzbekistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan , where Russian can be considered a second language, and there are large Russophone communities . However, unlike in Hong Kong , English is considered a foreign language in China due to

5684-571: The Nordic countries and the Netherlands is considered a second language by many of its speakers, because they learn it young and use it regularly; indeed in parts of South Asia it is the official language of the courts, government and business. The same can be said for French in Algeria , Morocco and Tunisia , although French is not an official language in any of them. In practice, French

5800-549: The "bilingual brain," research specifically on how bilingual education impacts brain structure and activation is fairly limited . Though much of the research on bilinguals shows that the benefits of bilingualism are maximized when children are exposed to multiple languages at an early age, as they are in many bilingual education programs. However, some initial research has shown preschool children in bilingual education programs have similar brain activation patterns in response to known and unknown languages as adults who have been learning

5916-455: The 50/50 model, starts with an even distribution of instruction time between the two languages right from the start of the student's education. In a late exit or developmental program , students all have the same native language. They tend to follow the 90/10 model described above and gradually transition from a majority of instruction in their home language to a more balanced split between languages as they progress through primary school. In

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6032-661: The Andaman Association and creator of the encyclopedic andaman.org Web site, made a report in December 1997 about the number of secondary speakers of the world's leading languages. Weber used the Fischer Weltalmanach of 1986 as his primary and only source for the L2-speakers data, in preparing the data in the following table. These numbers are here compared with those referred to by Ethnologue,

6148-509: The IRF (Initiation-Response-Follow-up) pattern; and 'directive scaffolding' that refers to IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation). Saxena (2010) develops these two notions theoretically by incorporating Bhaktin's (1981) and van Lier's (1996) works. Within the IRE pattern, teachers provide 'directive scaffolding' on the assumption that their job is to transmit knowledge and then assess its appropriation by

6264-461: The L1 group. The inability of some subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the age of onset (AO). Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular. As we are learning more and more about the brain, there

6380-456: The L2 learner's language as a rule-governed, dynamic system). These theories have all influenced second-language teaching and pedagogy. There are many different methods of second-language teaching, many of which stem directly from a particular theory. Common methods are the grammar-translation method , the direct method , the audio-lingual method (clearly influenced by audio-lingual research and

6496-420: The ZPD, or Zone of Proximal Development . An MKO may help a student using scaffolding, with the goal being that the student can eventually lead themselves to the answer on their own, without the help of anyone else. The MKO may use a gradual reduction of assistance in order to facilitate this, as described earlier. There are a wide variety of scaffolding strategies that teachers employ. One approach to looking at

6612-399: The age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures, and the process is relatively very fast because language is a very complex skill. Moreover, if children start to learn a second language when they are seven years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their second language in a faster speed comparing to

6728-408: The aim of helping students concentrate on developing their skills in that language. Bilingual programs often combine both language separation and translanguaging approaches to facilitate students in achieving bi-literacy. Instructional scaffolding can be used in all types of education, not only bilingual education. A teacher scaffolds instruction to provide the necessary support for students to learn

6844-463: The application of scaffolding is to look at a framework for evaluating these strategies. This model was developed based on the theoretical principles of scaffolding to highlight the use of scaffolding for educational purposes. It highlights two components of an instructor's use of scaffolding. The first is the instructors intentions and the second refers to the means by which the scaffolding is carried out. Scaffolding intentions: These groups highlight

6960-539: The behaviourist approach), the Silent Way , Suggestopedia , community language learning , the Total Physical Response method , and the communicative approach (highly influenced by Krashen's theories). Some of these approaches are more popular than others, and are viewed to be more effective. Most language teachers do not use one singular style, but will use a mix in their teaching. This provides

7076-413: The brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms , responsible for much of human learning, process language. Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language acquisition studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create

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7192-435: The capacity to figure out the grammatical rules. Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not. In the learning of a second language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout

7308-487: The child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow". Some ingredients of scaffolding are predictability, playfulness, focus on meaning, role reversal, modeling, and nomenclature. According to Saye and Brush, there are two levels of scaffolding: soft and hard. An example of soft scaffolding in the classroom would be when a teacher circulates the room and converses with his or her students. The teacher may question their approach to

7424-440: The child's degrees of understanding. shows that what may seem like casual conversational exchanges between tutor and student actually offer many opportunities for fostering cognitive development, language learning, story composition for writing, and reading comprehension. Conversations facilitate generative, constructive, experimental, and developmental speech and writing in the development of new ideas. In Vygotsky's words, "what

7540-475: The child's potential level of development in the zone of proximal development (ZPD). An essential element to the ZPD and scaffolding is the acquisition of language. According to Vygotsky, language (and in particular, speech) is fundamental to children's cognitive growth because language provides purpose and intention so that behaviors can be better understood. Through the use of speech, children are able to communicate to and learn from others through dialogue, which

7656-432: The classroom than the cognitive processing of the students. He contested that the affective side of students and their self-esteem were equally important to the teaching process. In the 1980s, the strict grammar and corrective approach of the 1950s became obsolete. Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them. The main concern at this time

7772-493: The cognitive load for students. Constructivist instructors, in contrast, approach instruction from the approach of guided discovery with a particular emphasis on transfer. The concept of transfer focuses on a learner's ability to apply learned tasks in a context other than the one in which it was learned. This results in constructivist instructors, unlike classical ones, giving a higher level of guidance than instruction. Research has demonstrated that higher level of guidance has

7888-412: The collaboration of peers to technology available in the classroom. In writing instruction, support is typically presented in verbal form (discourse). The writing tutor engages the learner's attention, calibrates the task, motivates the student, identifies relevant task features, controls for frustration, and demonstrates as needed. Through joint activities, the teacher scaffolds conversation to maximize

8004-522: The content. In a bilingual education classroom, this could look like pre-teaching content in the student's native language before teaching the same content in the second language. In bilingual education, teachers may use different techniques to correct students' language errors. One such technique is recasting, which involves repeating the student's statement with corrections for any grammatical or pronunciation mistakes, akin to how parents assist their children in learning their first language. Another technique

8120-541: The context of guidance because they believe instruction plays a major role in knowledge retention and transfer. Research studies demonstrate how the context of isolated explanations can have an effect on student-learning outcomes. For example, Hake's (1998) large-scale study demonstrated how post-secondary physics students recalled less than 30% of material covered in a traditional lecture-style class. Similarly, other studies illustrate how students construct different understandings from explanation in isolation versus having

8236-782: The corrective processes. According to Noam Chomsky , children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar because the input (utterances they hear) is so poor but all children end up having complete knowledge of grammar. Chomsky calls it the Poverty of Stimulus . And second language learners can do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for example. So learners in both their native and second language have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, so that people can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard before. Bilingualism has been an advantage to today's world and being bilingual gives

8352-477: The culture. The program takes advantage of having native speakers while also recognizing that new and upcoming speakers can help the language adapt to more modern times. Thanks to the emerging language revitalization programs, more communities can break free from an accommodation norm – feeling threatened to speak their native language due to political tensions, such as colonialism that still persists throughout most nations. The question of whose language and knowledge

8468-400: The development of cognitive and social skills . Instructional scaffolding could be employed through modeling a task, giving advice, and/or providing coaching . These supports are gradually removed as students develop autonomous learning strategies, thus promoting their own cognitive , affective and psychomotor learning skills and knowledge. Teachers help the students master a task or

8584-452: The development of a child's intrapsychological functioning. In this process, the adult controls the elements of the task that are beyond the child's ability, all the while increasing the expectations of what the child is able to do. Speech, a critical tool to scaffold thinking and responding, plays a crucial role in the development of higher psychological processes because it enables thinking to be more abstract, flexible, and independent. From

8700-497: The fluency, it is better to do foreign language education at an early age, but being exposed to a foreign language since an early age causes a "weak identification". Such issue leads to a "double sense of national belonging," that makes one not sure of where they belong to because, according to Brian A. Jacob, multicultural education affects students' "relations, attitudes, and behaviors". And as children learn more and more foreign languages, children start to adapt, and get absorbed into

8816-520: The foreign culture that they "undertake to describe themselves in ways that engage with representations others have made". Due to such factors, learning foreign languages at an early age may incur one's perspective of his or her native country. Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully native-like in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around

8932-559: The goal for bilingual programs is: is it cultural acknowledgment or bilingualism? Quite often there is a clash between the government educational policies and the actual implementation of said policies. That being said, there has been tremendous progress of working bilingual programs, one being in New Zealand. The Māori community in the Te Kōhanga Reo region created an early language childhood program that includes traditional customs of

9048-608: The group can learn from each other's experiences and knowledge. The scaffolding is shared by each member and changes constantly as the group works on a task. According to Vygotsky, students develop higher-level thinking skills when scaffolding occurs with an adult expert or with a peer of higher capabilities. Conversely, Piaget believes that students discard their ideas when paired with an adult or student of more expertise. Instead, students should be paired with others who have different perspectives. Conflicts would then take place between students allowing them to think constructively at

9164-415: The initial stage of foreign language education. Gauthier and Genesee have done research which mainly focuses on the second language acquisition of internationally adopted children and results show that early experiences of one language of children can affect their ability to acquire a second language, and usually children learn their second language slower and weaker even during the critical period. As for

9280-404: The instructors intentions for scaffolding Scaffolding means: These groups highlight the ways in which the instructor scaffolds Any combination of scaffolding means with scaffolding intention can be construed as a scaffolding strategy, however, whether a teaching strategy qualifies as good scaffolding generally depends upon its enactment in actual practice and more specifically upon whether

9396-422: The issues of power, control, institutional managerial positioning, etc. are diffused or suspended. The discourse opens up the roles for students as the 'primary knower' and the 'sequence initiator', which allows them to be the negotiator and co-constructor of meaning. The suspension of asymmetry in the talk represents a shift in the teacher's ideological stance and, therefore, demonstrates that supportive scaffolding

9512-537: The knowledge needed to complete the task. This support is weaned gradually until the learner is independent. For scaffolding to be effective teachers need to pay attention to the following: Scaffolding theory was first introduced in the late 1950s by Jerome Bruner , a cognitive psychologist . He used the term to describe young children's oral language acquisition . Helped by their parents when they first start learning to speak, young children are provided with informal instructional formats within which their learning

9628-479: The lack of opportunities for use, such as historical links, media, conversation between people, and common vocabulary. Likewise, French would be considered a foreign language in Romania and Moldova , even though both French and Romanian are Romance languages , Romania's historical links to France, and all being members of la Francophonie . George H. J. Weber, a Swiss businessman and independent scholar, founder of

9744-583: The last century much advancement has been made in research on the correction of students' errors. In the 1950s and 60s, the viewpoint of the day was that all errors must be corrected at all costs. Little thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction. In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalterable order, and that teaching or correcting styles would not change that. In 1977, Terrell"s studies showing that there were more factors to be considered in

9860-472: The latter is being learned for use in an area where that language is originally from another country and not spoken in the native country of the speakers. And in other words, foreign language is used from the perspective of countries; the second language is used from the perspective of individuals. For example, English in countries such as India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Bangladesh , the Philippines ,

9976-500: The latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as second-language acquisition (SLA). Research in SLA "...focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and]

10092-411: The learner bridge a cognitive gap. This can also include peer mentoring from more experienced students. These peers can be referred to as MKOs. MKO stands for 'More Knowledgeable Other'. The MKO is a person who has a higher understanding of an idea or concept and can bridge this cognitive gap. This includes teachers, parents, and as stated before, peers. MKOs are central part of the process of learning in

10208-456: The learner, with more expert learners generally requiring less direct instruction. For example, despite providing many of the criticisms of minimal guidance, cognitive load theory does also suggest a role for less direct guidance from the teacher as learners become more expert due to the expertise reversal effect . Other attempts at synthesis include using pedagogies more associated with martial arts instruction that apply explicit instruction as

10324-477: The learners. The question-answer-evaluation sequence creates a predetermined standard for acceptable participation and induces passive learning. In this type of interaction, the teacher holds the right to evaluate and asks 'known-information' questions which emphasise the reproduction of information. The nature and role of the triadic dialogue have been oversimplified and the potential for the roles of teachers and students in them has been undermined. If, in managing

10440-409: The learning goals or the modality of learning. With this, more guidance (if not appropriate to the learning) can negatively impact performance, as it gives the learner overwhelming levels of information. However, appropriately designed high levels of guidance, which properly interact with the learning, is more beneficial to learning than low levels of guidance. Constructivists pay close attention to

10556-524: The long term. Constructivism views knowledge as a "function of how the individual creates meaning from his or her own experiences". Constructivists advocate that learning is better facilitated in a minimally guided environment where learners construct important information for themselves. According to constructivism, minimal guidance in the form of process or task related information should be provided to learners upon request and direct instruction of learning strategies should not be used because it impedes

10672-424: The meaning of words clearly. The emotional distinction between L1 and L2 indicates that the "effective valence" of words is processed less immediate in L2 because of the delayed vocabulary/lexical access to these two languages. Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners will be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all people will learn

10788-676: The minimal guidance approach originating in cognitive load theory is that it does not align with human cognitive architecture making it an inefficient approach to learning for beginner learners in particular. In this strand of criticism, minimal guidance approaches are contrasted with fully guided approaches to instruction which better match inherent human cognitive architecture. While accepting this general line of argument, counter-arguments for individual approaches such as problem-based learning have highlighted how these are not minimal guidance approaches, and are consistent with human cognitive architecture. Other strands of criticism suggest that there

10904-457: The natural processes learners use to recall prior experiences. In this view, for learners to construct knowledge they should be provided with the goals and minimal information and support. Applications that promote constructivist learning require learners to solve authentic problems or "acquire knowledge in information-rich settings". An example of an application of constructivist learning is science instruction, where students are asked to discover

11020-410: The neural system of hormone allocated for reproduction and sexual organ growth. As far as the relationship between age and eventual attainment in SLA is concerned, Krashen, Long, and Scarcella, say that people who encounter foreign language in early age, begin natural exposure to second languages and obtain better proficiency than those who learn the second language as an adult. However, when it comes to

11136-432: The new language. Unlike in maintenance bilingual education programs, when the child's second language proficiency is deemed satisfactory, they transition to using only that language. This approach is based on the common underlying proficiency model of bilingualism which posits that many of the skills learned in the native language can be transferred easily to the second language later. While the linguistic goal of such programs

11252-409: The next stage. Thus the learner obtains or raises new understandings by building on their prior knowledge through the support delivered by more capable individuals. Several peer-reviewed studies have shown that when there is a deficiency in guided learning experiences and social interaction, learning and development are obstructed. Moreover, several things influence the ZPD of students, ranging from

11368-407: The opportunity to understand and communicate with people with different cultural backgrounds. However, a study done by Optiz and Degner in 2012 shows that sequential bilinguals (i.e. learn their L2 after L1) often relate themselves to the emotions more when they perceive these emotions by their first language/native language/L1, but feel less emotional when by their second language even though they know

11484-430: The principles of science by imitating the steps and actions of researchers. Instructionism are educational practices characterized for being instructor-centered. Some authors see instructionism as a highly prescriptive practice that mostly focuses on the formation of skills, that is very product-oriented and is not interactive; or that is a highly structured, systematic and explicit way of teaching that gives emphasis to

11600-528: The quantity, the context and the timing of guidance. An example of application of instructionism in the classroom is direct instruction . With traditional power dynamics in the classroom, the teacher is the authority. In order to engage in meaningful student talk, we need to break this hierarchy. Minimal guidance is a general term applied to a variety of pedagogical approaches such as inquiry learning , learner-centered pedagogy, student-centered learning , project-based learning , and discovery learning . It

11716-444: The relationship between age and rate SLA , "Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant)". Also, "older children acquire faster than younger children do (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where time and exposure are held constant)". In other words, adults and older children are fast learners when it comes to

11832-413: The role of the teacher as a transmitter of knowledge and the students as passive receptacles. The 'transmission' of knowledge and skills from the teacher to the student in this context is often manifested in the form of drill, practice and rote memorization. An 'instructionist', then, focuses on the preparation, organization and management of the lesson making sure the plan is detailed and the communication

11948-423: The role of the teacher may change from what has been described as "sage on the stage" to "guide on the side" with one example of this change in practice being that teachers will not tend to answer questions from students directly, but instead will ask questions back to students to prompt further thinking. This change in teaching style has also been described as being a "facilitator of learning" instead of being

12064-501: The same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the critical period hypothesis . In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam found that around the age of six or seven seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get near-native-like-ness but their language would, while consisting of few actual errors, have enough errors to set them apart from

12180-563: The second language. For L2 pronunciation, there are two principles that have been put forth by Levis. The first is nativeness which means the speaker's ability to approximately reach the speaking pattern of the second language of speakers; and the second, understanding, refers to the speaker's ability to make themselves understood. Being successful in learning a second language is often found to be challenging for some individuals. Research has been done to look into why some students are more successful than others. Stern, Rubin and Reiss are just

12296-407: The speed of learning by adults who start to learn a second language later in their life. In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they end up having

12412-670: The strategies that a teacher uses to help learners bridge a cognitive gap or progress in their learning to a level they were previously unable to accomplish. These strategies evolve as the teachers evaluate the learners initial level of ability and then through continued feedback throughout the progression of the task. In the early studies, scaffolding was primarily done in oral, face- to-face learning environments. In classrooms, scaffolding may include modelling behaviours, coaching and prompting, thinking out loud, dialogue with questions and answers, planned and spontaneous discussions, as well as other interactive planning or structural assistance to help

12528-437: The strategy is applied contingently and whether it is also part of a process of fading and transfer of responsibility. Examples of scaffolding : Instructors can use a variety of scaffolds to accommodate different levels of knowledge. The context of learning (i.e. novice experience, complexity of the task) may require more than one scaffold strategy in order for the student to master new content. The following table outlines

12644-625: The talk, teachers apply 'constructive power' and exploit students' responses as occasions for joint exploration, rather than simply evaluating them, then the classroom talk becomes dialogic. The pedagogic orientation of this talk becomes 'participation orientation', in contrast to 'display/assessment orientation' of IRE. In this kind of pattern of interaction, the third part of the triadic dialogue offers 'follow-up' and teachers' scaffolding becomes 'supportive'. Rather than producing 'authoritative discourse', teachers construct 'internally persuasive discourse' that allows 'equality' and 'symmetry' wherein

12760-465: The teacher may identify hints or cues to help the student reach an even higher level of thinking. In both situations, the idea of "expert scaffolding" is being implemented: the teacher in the classroom is considered the expert and is responsible for providing scaffolding for the students. Reciprocal scaffolding, a method first coined by Holton and Thomas, is a method that involves a group of two or more collaboratively working together. In this situation,

12876-418: The teacher repeating a student's incorrect utterance with the correct version, are not always the most useful because students do not notice the correction. His studies in 2002 showed that students learn better when teachers help students recognize and correct their own errors. Mackey, Gas and McDonough had similar findings in 2000 and attributed the success of this method to the student's active participation in

12992-404: The test results, the intrinsic part has been the main motivation for these student who learn English as their second language. However, students report themselves being strongly instrumentally motivated. In conclusion, learning a second language and being successful depend on every individual. In pedagogy and sociolinguistics , a distinction is made between second language and foreign language,

13108-589: The value of their home or heritage language , resulting in increased self-esteem. Additionally, bilingual education models have been shown to improve student engagement and attendance as parent involvement in school activities. Bilingual education supports students in becoming literate in both languages, which has been shown to increase reading scores for students in both languages. Researchers have proposed that this could be due to students in bilingual programs having an increased awareness of languages and their writing systems. While there has been significant research on

13224-470: Was found that providing feedback right after the error can deprive the learner of the opportunity to develop evaluative skills. Wise and O'Neill bring these two, seemingly contradictory findings, and argue that it does not only prove the importance of the role of feedback, but that points out a timing feature of feedback: immediate feedback in the short term promotes more rapid problem-solving, but delaying feedback can result in better retention and transfer in

13340-446: Was most effective when mothers provided explicit conceptual links during play. Therefore, the results of this study not only suggest that verbal scaffolding aids children's cognitive development , but that the quality of the scaffolding is also important for learning and development. A construct that is critical for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development

13456-469: Was relieving student stress and creating a warm environment for them. Stephen Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off approach to error correction. The 1990s brought back the familiar idea that explicit grammar instruction and error correction was indeed useful for the SLA process. At this time, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the most useful for students. In 1998, Lyster concluded that "recasts",

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