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64-398: Quadrumana is Latin for "four-handed ones", which was a term used for Lemurs, monkeys and apes since their feet are prehensile and similar to hands. It was not clear at the time that Tarsiers belonged as well in this group, as sister of the monkeys (incl. apes). A similar term, quadrumanous , is used to describe locomotion involving both using feet and using hands to grasp at branches. Bimana

128-652: A human and an orangutan , neither of which was a chimpanzee, and that by consequence the name Homo troglodytes could not be used. Blumenbach was one of the first scientists to understand the identities of the different species of primates, which were (excluding humans) orangutans and chimpanzees. ( Gorillas were not known to Europeans at this time). In Opinion 1368, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) decided in 1985 that Blumenbach's view should be followed, and that his Simia troglodytes as published by Blumenbach in 1779 shall be

192-411: A chick out of unformed substance and his dispute with Albrecht von Haller brought the issue of life to the forefront of natural science and philosophy. Wolff identified an "essential power" ( essentliche Kraft , or vis essentialis ) that allowed structure to be a result of power, "the very power through which, in the vegetable body, all those things which we describe as life are effected." While Wolff

256-405: A different climate and diet. Hence, he argued that physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc., depended on geography, diet, and mannerism. Further anatomical study led him to the conclusion that "individual Africans differ as much, or even more, from other Africans as from Europeans". Like other monogenists such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , Blumenbach held to

320-610: A home for the new religious opinions of the sixteenth century, it has since been one of the most politically radical universities in Germany. Jena was noted among other German universities at the time for allowing students to duel and to have a passion for Freiheit , which were popularly regarded as the necessary characteristics of German student life. The University of Jena has preserved a historical detention room or Karzer with famous caricatures by Swiss painter Martin Disteli . In

384-448: A main founder of zoology and anthropology as comparative, scientific disciplines. He has been called the "founder of racial classifications". He was one of the first to explore the study of the human being as an aspect of natural history . His teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to his classification of human races , of which he claimed there were five, Caucasian , Mongolian , Malayan , Ethiopian , and American . He

448-574: A separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora , etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus , so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in

512-589: A static view of nature and man, but vital nature continued to interrupt this view, and the issue of life, the creation of life and its varieties, increasingly occupied attention and "starting in the 1740s the concept of vital power reentered the scene of generation ... there must be some 'productive power' in nature that enabled unorganized material to generate new living forms." Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon wrote an influential work in 1749, Natural History , that revived interest in vital nature. Buffon held that there were certain penetrating powers which organised

576-407: Is Latin for "two-handed ones". The division was proposed by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his Manual of Natural History (1779) and taken up by other naturalists, most notably Georges Cuvier . Some elevated the distinction to the level of an order . However, the many affinities between humans and other primates – and especially the great apes – made it clear that

640-554: Is a public research university located in Jena , Thuringia , Germany . The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany . It is affiliated with six Nobel Prize winners, most recently in 2000 when Jena graduate Herbert Kroemer won the Nobel Prize for physics. It was renamed after the poet Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of philosophy when Jena attracted some of

704-535: Is a university association with the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg and the University of Leipzig . The aim is firstly to give the students the opportunity to visit with relatively few problems at the partner universities and events in order to broaden the range of subjects and topics. Currently e. g. has joined a cooperation in teaching in the field of bioinformatics. In addition,

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768-460: Is active and operative; in the first instance to attain the definite form of the species, then to preserve it entire, and, when it is infringed upon, so far as this is possible, to restore it." This power of vitality is "not referable to any qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical." Blumenbach compared the uncertainty about the origin and ultimate nature of the formative drive to similar uncertainties about gravitational attraction: "just in

832-634: Is recognized in several university ranking systems. As per the QS World University Rankings for 2024, the university is ranked 461st in the world and 26th nationally. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2024, it is placed at 201-250th globally and 22-24th within the country. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) for 2022 places it within the 401-500 bracket globally, and between 25th and 31st in

896-417: Is said by several modern authors to have relied on Blumenbach's biological concept of formative power in developing his idea of organic purpose. Kant wrote to Blumenbach in 1790 to praise his concept of the formative force ( Bildungstrieb ). However, whereas Kant had a heuristic concept in mind, to explain mechanical causes, Blumenbach conceived of a cause fully resident in nature. From this he would argue that

960-517: The Bildungstrieb was central to the creation of new species. Though Blumenbach left no overt indications of sources for his theory of biological revolution, his ideas harmonize with those of Charles Bonnet and especially with those of his contemporary Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), and it was Herder whose ideas were influenced by Blumenbach. Blumenbach continued to refine the concept in his De nisu formativo et generationis negotio ('On

1024-862: The Chinese were fair skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns protected from environmental factors. He believed that the degeneration could be reversed in a proper environmental control and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race. Moreover, he concluded that Africans were not inferior to the rest of mankind "concerning healthy faculties of understanding, excellent natural talents and mental capacities": "Finally, I am of opinion that after all these numerous instances I have brought together of negroes of capacity, it would not be difficult to mention entire well-known provinces of Europe, from out of which you would not easily expect to obtain off-hand such good authors, poets, philosophers, and correspondents of

1088-648: The prince regent in 1816, made a knight-commander of the Guelphic Order in 1821, and elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1831. In celebration of his doctoral jubilee (1825), traveling scholarships were founded to assist talented young physicians and naturalists. He retired in 1835. Blumenbach died in 1840 in Göttingen, where he is buried in the Albani cemetery . Blumenbach explored

1152-477: The type species of the genus Pan and, since it was the oldest available name for the chimpanzee, be used for this species. However, the commission did not know that Blumenbach had already mentioned this name in his dissertation. Following the rules of the ICZN Code the scientific name of one of the most well-known African animals, currently known as Pan troglodytes , must carry Blumenbach's name combined with

1216-454: The " degenerative hypothesis " of racial origins. Blumenbach claimed that Adam and Eve were Caucasian inhabitants of Asia, and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors such as the sun and poor diet. Thus, he claimed, Negroid pigmentation arose because of the result of the heat of the tropical sun, while the cold wind caused the tawny colour of the Eskimos , and

1280-456: The 20th century the university was promoted through cooperation with Carl Zeiss (company) and thereby enabling it to increase the student population as a mass university. In 1905 the university had 1,100 students and 112 university teachers, so this figure has since been almost twenty-fold. The Friedrich-Schiller University is the only comprehensive university in Thuringia. Since 1995, there

1344-636: The Bachstraße received total or significant physical damage. Completely destroyed were the Botanical Garden, the psychological and the physiological institute and three chemical Institutes. An important event for the National Socialist period was the investigation of the pediatrician Yusuf Ibrahim . A Senate Commission noted the participation of the physician to the "euthanasia" murders of physically or mentally disabled children. In

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1408-634: The Enlightenment were developed as research institutions. 2014 the "Center of Advanced Research" (ZAF) was established. Jena University is one of the founder of The German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, that was founded in 2013. It is a research centre of the German Research Foundation (DFG). Friedrich Schiller University is the only German university with chairs for either gravitational theory or Caucasus Studies. The University of Jena

1472-647: The Formative Drive and the Operation of Generation', 1787) and in the second edition (1788) of the Handbuch der Naturgeschichte : 'it is a proper force ( eigentliche Kraft ), whose undeniable existence and extensive effects are apparent throughout the whole of nature and revealed by experience'. He consolidated these in the second edition of Über den Bildungstrieb . Blumenbach had initially been an advocate of Haller's view, in contrast to those of Wolff, that

1536-634: The German biologists during the early nineteenth century studied under him or were inspired by him: Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer , Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus , Heinrich Friedrich Link , Johann Friedrich Meckel , Johannes Illiger, and Rudolph Wagner ." University of Jena The University of Jena , officially the Friedrich Schiller University Jena ( German : Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena , abbreviated FSU , shortened form Uni Jena ),

1600-461: The Lebenskraft (1774). Scientists were now forced to consider hidden and mysterious powers of and in living matter that resisted physical laws – warm-blooded animals maintaining a consistent temperature despite changing outside temperatures, for example. In 1759, Caspar Friedrich Wolff , a German embryologist provided evidence for the ancient idea of epigenesis, that is preformed life, that is

1664-516: The Natural Variety of Mankind , University of Göttingen, which was first published in 1775, then re-issued with changes to the titlepage in 1776). It is considered one of the most influential works in the development of subsequent human race concepts . It contained the germ of the craniological research to which so many of his subsequent inquiries were directed. Blumenbach was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine and inspector of

1728-872: The Paris Academy; and on the other hand, there is no so-called savage nation known under the sun which has so much distinguished itself by such examples of perfectibility and original capacity for scientific culture, and thereby attached itself so closely to the most civilized nations of the earth, as the Negro." He did not consider his "degenerative hypothesis" as racist and sharply criticized Christoph Meiners , an early practitioner of scientific racialism, as well as Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring , who concluded from autopsies that Africans were an inferior race. Blumenbach wrote three other essays stating non-white peoples were capable of excelling in arts and sciences in reaction against racialists of his time. At his time, Blumenbach

1792-416: The Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (11 May 1752 – 22 January 1840) was a German physician , naturalist , physiologist and anthropologist . He is considered to be

1856-526: The animal functions of man with those of other animals. Following Georges Cuvier 's identification, Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its first scientific name, Elephas primigenius (first-born elephant), in 1799. His reputation was much extended by the publication of his Institutiones Physiologicae (1787), a condensed, well-arranged view of the animal functions, expounded without discussion of minute anatomical details. Between its first publication and 1821, it went through many editions in Germany, where it

1920-584: The biodiversity of humans mainly by comparing skull anatomy and skin color. His work included a description of sixty human crania (skulls) published originally in fascicules as Decas craniorum (Göttingen, 1790–1828). This was a founding work for other scientists in the field of craniometry . He established a five-part naming system in 1795 to describe what he called generis humani varietates quinae principes, species vero unica (five principal varieties of humankind, but one species). In his view, humans could be divided into varieties (only in his later work he adopted

1984-423: The center of his description as being the most "primitive" or "primeval" one from which the other forms "degenerated". In the 18th century, however, these terms did not have the negative connotations they possess today. At the time, "primitive" or "primeval" described the ancestral form, while "degeneration" was understood to be the process of change leading to a variety adapted to a new environment by being exposed to

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2048-572: The cooperation provides the university management the opportunity to share experiences with their regular meetings and initiate common projects. So z. B. went from the successful bid to the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) from the university network. The co-operation continues at other levels: for example in a joint mentoring program for female postdocs or in the central German archives network. And last but not least, there are common sports activities. Since October 2014,

2112-487: The date 1776. Blumenbach shortly afterward wrote a manual of natural history entitled Handbuch der Naturgeschichte ; 12 editions and some translations. It was published first in Göttingen by J. C. Dieterich in 1779/1780. He was also one of the first scientists to study the anatomy of the platypus , assigning the scientific name Ornithorhynchus paradoxus to the animal, being unaware George Shaw had already given it

2176-527: The decade following its formulation and in the thinking of the German natural philosophers . One of Blumenbach's contemporaries, Samuel Hahnemann , undertook to study in detail how this generative, reproductive and creative power, which he termed the Erzeugungskraft of the Lebenskraft of living power of the organism, could be negatively affected by inimical agents to engender disease. Kant

2240-558: The distinction made no scientific sense. In 1863, however, Thomas Henry Huxley in his Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature demonstrated that the higher apes might fairly be included in Bimana. Charles Darwin wrote, in The Descent of Man (1871): The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in

2304-466: The essential elements of the embryo were already in the egg, he later sided with Wolff. Blumenbach provided evidence for the actual existence of this formative force, to distinguish it from other, merely nominal terms. The way in which the Bildungstrieb differed, perhaps, from other such forces was in its comprehensive architectonic character: it directed the formation of anatomical structures and

2368-446: The first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by Bischoff , Aeby , and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and

2432-666: The labors of his predecessors. Although the greatest part of Blumenbach's life was passed at Göttingen, in 1789 he visited Switzerland , and gave a curious medical topography of that country in the Bibliothek . He was in England in 1788 and 1792. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London in 1793 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1794. In 1798, he

2496-513: The latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory , with Carl Gegenbaur , Ernst Haeckel and others publishing detailed theories at the time of Darwin 's " Origin of Species " (1858). The later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term "Haeckelism" was more common than Darwinism . In 1905, Jena had 1,100 students enrolled and its teaching staff (including Privatdozenten ) numbered 112. Amongst its numerous auxiliaries then were

2560-665: The library, with 200,000 volumes; the observatory; the meteorological institute; the botanical garden; the seminaries of theology, philology, and education; and the well-equipped clinical, anatomical, and physical institutes. After the end of the Saxon duchies in 1918, and their merger with further principalities into the Free State of Thuringia in 1920, the university was renamed as the Thuringian State University (Thüringische Landesuniversität) in 1921. In 1934

2624-437: The most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century. With Karl Leonhard Reinhold , Johann Gottlieb Fichte , G. W. F. Hegel , F. W. J. Schelling and Friedrich Schlegel on its teaching staff, the university was at the centre of the emergence of German idealism and early Romanticism . As of 2014 , the university has around 19,000 students enrolled and 375 professors. Its current president, Walter Rosenthal , has held

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2688-491: The museum of natural history in Göttingen in 1776 and ordinary professor in 1778. His contributions soon began to enrich the pages of the Medicinische Bibliothek , of which he was editor from 1780 to 1794, with various contributions on medicine, physiology, and anatomy. In physiology, he was of the school of Albrecht von Haller , and was in the habit of illustrating his theory by a careful comparison of

2752-567: The name Platypus anatinus . However, Platypus had already been shown to be used for the scientific name for a genus of Ambrosia beetles so Blumenbach's scientific name for the genus was used. Blumenbach made many contributions to the scientific debates of the last half of the 18th century regarding evolution and creation. His central contribution was in the conception of a vis formativa or Bildungstrieb , an inborn force within an organism that led it to create, maintain, and repair its shape. Enlightenment science and philosophy essentially held

2816-648: The name Simia troglodytes in connection with a short description for the chimpanzee . This dissertation was printed and appeared in September 1775, but only for internal use in the University of Göttingen and not for providing a public record. The public print of his dissertation appeared in 1776. Blumenbach knew that Carl Linnaeus had already established a name Homo troglodytes for a badly known primate . In 1779, he discussed this Linnean name and concluded correctly that Linnaeus had been dealing with two species,

2880-730: The national context. Among the collections which are open to the public are the Jena Phyletisches Museum , an institution which is unique in Europe for illustrating the history of evolution, the Ernst-Haeckel-Memorial Museum , the Mineralogical Collection which traces its roots back to Goethe and the second oldest Botanical Garden of Middle Europe . The Schiller Gardenhouse  [ de ] ( Schillers Gartenhaus ) and

2944-432: The operations of physiological processes of the organism so that various parts would come into existence and function interactively to achieve the ends of the species. Blumenbach was regarded as a leading light of German science by his contemporaries. Kant and Friedrich Schelling both called him "one of the most profound biological theorists of the modern era." In the words of science historian Peter Watson, "roughly half

3008-541: The organic particles that made up the living organism. Erasmus Darwin translated Buffon's idea of organic particles into "molecules with formative propensities" and in Germany Buffon's idea of an internal order, moule interieur arising out of the action of the penetrating powers was translated into German as Kraft (power). The German term for vital power or living power, Lebenskraft , as distinct from chemical or physical forces, first appeared with Medicus's on

3072-542: The partitioning of John Frederick's duchy, was thus named Ducal Pan-Saxon University ( German : Herzoglich Sächsische Gesamtuniversität ) or Salana (after the river Saale ). Prior to the 20th century, university enrollment peaked in the 18th century. The university's reputation reached its zenith under the auspices of Duke Charles Augustus , Goethe 's patron (1787–1806), when Gottlieb Fichte , G. W. F. Hegel , Friedrich Schelling , Friedrich von Schlegel and Friedrich Schiller were on its teaching staff. Founded as

3136-419: The pharmacologist Walter Rosenthal is the president of the university; Chancellor is since 2007 the mathematician Klaus Bartholmé. The university is organized in 10 schools: Research at Friedrich Schiller University traditionally focusses on both humanities and sciences. In addition to the faculties the following "Collaborative Research Centers" ( German "Sonderforschungsbereich", short: "SFB") operate at

3200-560: The role since 2014. Elector John Frederick of Saxony first thought of a plan to establish a university at Jena upon Saale in 1547 while he was being held captive by emperor Charles V . The plan was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the Emperor Ferdinand I , the university was established on 2 February 1558. The university, jointly maintained by the Saxon Duchies derived from

3264-585: The same way as we use the name of attraction or gravity to denote certain forces, the causes of which however still remain hid, as they say, in Cimmerian darkness, the formative force (nisus formativus) can explain the generation of animals." At the same time, befitting the central idea of the science and medicine of dynamic polarity, it was also the physiological functional identity of what theorists of society or mind called "aspiration". Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb found quick passage into evolutionary theorizing of

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3328-518: The term "races", which had been introduced by others) but he was aware that a clear separation was difficult: "All national differences in the form and colour of the human body [. . .] run so insensibly, by so many shades and transitions one into the other, that it is impossible to separate them by any but very arbitrary limits." Blumenbach's classification of the single human species into five varieties (later called " races ") (1793/1795): Blumenbach assumed that all morphological differences between

3392-758: The transfer of power and won great support among the student body elections in January 1933, achieving 49.3% of the vote, which represents the second best result. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded. When the Allied air raids to Jena in February and March struck in 1945, the University Library, the university main building and several clinics in

3456-500: The university was renamed again, receiving its present name of Friedrich Schiller University . During the 20th century, the cooperation between Zeiss corporation and the university brought new prosperity and attention to Jena, resulting in a dramatic increase in funding and enrollment. During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading positions at the university. The racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel

3520-662: The university: Participations in DFG-Collaborative Research Centres: In 2006 the research center, Jena Center – History of the 20th century, was founded. In 2007 the graduate school "Jena School for Microbial Communication" (JSMC) was established within the German Universities Excellence Initiative . In 2008 the Center for Molecular Biomedicine (CMB) and the interdisciplinary research center Laboratory of

3584-468: The varieties were induced by the climate and the way of living and he emphasized that the differences in morphology were so small, gradual and transiently connected that it was not possible to separate these varieties clearly. He also noted that skin color was unsuitable for distinguishing varieties. Although Blumenbach did not propose any hierarchy among the five varieties, he placed the Caucasian form in

3648-577: Was Heinrich Blumenbach, a local school headmaster; his mother was Charlotte Eleonore Hedwig Buddeus. He was born into a well-connected family of academics. Blumenbach was educated at the Illustrious Gymnasium in Gotha before studying medicine, first at Jena and then at Göttingen . He was recognized as a prodigy by the age sixteen in 1768. He graduated from the latter in 1775 with his M.D. thesis De generis humani varietate nativa ( On

3712-475: Was a member of what modern historians call the Göttingen school of history . He is considered a pivotal figure in the development of physical anthropology . Blumenbach's peers considered him one of the great theorists of his day, and he was a mentor or influence on many of the next generation of German biologists, including Alexander von Humboldt . Blumenbach was born at his family house in Gotha . His father

3776-751: Was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process; he later became rector of the university in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service . Student fraternities – in particular the Burschenschaften – were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. The Nazi student federation enjoyed before

3840-846: Was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society . He became a correspondent, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands in 1808. This was changed to associated member in 1827. He was then appointed secretary to the Royal Society of Sciences in 1812, elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1813, appointed physician to the royal family in Hanover ( German : Obermedizinalrat ) by

3904-481: Was not concerned to name this vital organising, reproducing power, in 1780 Blumenbach posited a formative drive ( nisus formativus or Bildungstrieb ) responsible for biological "procreation, nourishment, and reproduction", as well as self-development and self-perfection on a cultural level. Blumenbach held that all living organisms "from man down to maggots, and from the cedar to common mould or mucor", possess an inherent "effort or tendency which, while life continues,

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3968-489: Was perceived as anti-racist and he strongly opposed the practice of slavery and the belief of the inherent savagery of the coloured races. Alexander von Humboldt wrote on his and Blumenbach's views: "While we maintain the unity of the human species, we at the same time repel the depressing assumption of superior and inferior races." However, selected parts of his views were later used by others to encourage scientific racism . In his dissertation, Blumenbach mentioned

4032-509: Was the general textbook of the science of physiology . It was translated into English in America by Charles Caldwell (Philadelphia 1798), and in London by John Elliotson (1807). He was perhaps still more extensively known by his Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie (" Handbook of comparative anatomy "), which passed through numerous German editions from its appearance in 1805 to 1824. It

4096-400: Was translated into English in 1809 by the surgeon William Lawrence , and again, with improvements and additions, by William Coulson in 1827. This manual, though slighter than the subsequent works of Cuvier, Carus, and others, and not to be compared with such later expositions as that of Gegenbaur, was long esteemed for the accuracy of the author's own observations, and his just appreciation of

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