Bimbia was an independent state of the Isubu people of Cameroon . In 1884, it was annexed by the Germans and incorporated in the colony of Kamerun . It lies in Southwest Region , to the south of Mount Cameroon and to the west of the Wouri estuary . Is situated at the East coast of the Limbé sub-division.
100-599: Bimbia consists of three villages: In 1932, the population of Bimbia was about 2500 people. Bimbia was the first-place white men, the Jamaican and English Baptist missionaries led by Rev. Alfred Saker set foot on the Cameroon shores in 1858, from Fernando Po . There, he built the first school and first Church. Later, he went to Victoria where he built the Ebenezer Baptist Church. The Bimbia man
200-618: A "Missionary to Africa". He was a leader of the early British Baptist missionaries that established churches on Fernando Po Island and Cameroon. His 1844-1876 mission work included translation - between 1862 and 1872 - of the Bible into the Duala language . Birthplace – Childhood – Youth Alfred Saker was born on 21 July 1814 in Borough Green , in Wrotham, Kent . His father was
300-441: A "series of linked nuclear families with a 'father' in common". Polyandry, the practice of a woman having more than one husband at one time, is much less prevalent than polygyny. It is specifically provided in the legal codes of some countries, such as Gabon . Polyandry is believed to be more common in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival. It
400-500: A Baptist Mission that relocated from the then Spanish island of Fernando Po and landed in Southern Cameroons. According to the record, he bought land from indigenous Bimbia chiefs, established a seaside settlement christened Victoria after the reigning British Empress. The settlement was renamed Limbe by decree in 1982 by President Ahmadou Ahidjo of Cameroon. Alfred Saker wished to be known under no other designation than
500-596: A church and school in Bimbia. In 1858, the Spanish ousted Protestant missionaries from their base at Fernando Po. King William sold a portion of his domains to the missionary Alfred Saker , who then founded Victoria (today known as Limbe ). By 1875, numerous missions and schools sprung up in Victoria and other settlements. Victoria came to be a mixture of freed slaves, working Cameroonians, and Christianised Cameroonians from
600-427: A community can increase through the addition of other wives, who add to the family's prosperity or symbolize conspicuous consumption (much as a large house, domestic help, or expensive vacations operate in a western country ). For such reasons, senior wives sometimes work hard or contribute from their own resources to enable their husbands to accumulate the bride price for an extra wife. Polygyny may also result from
700-586: A dispensation to take a second wife. The double marriage was to be done in secret, however, to avoid public scandal. Some fifteen years earlier, in a letter to the Saxon Chancellor Gregor Brück, Luther stated that he could not "forbid a person to marry several wives, for it does not contradict Scripture." (" Ego sane fateor, me non posse prohibere, si quis plures velit uxores ducere, nec repugnat sacris literis. ") In Sub-Saharan Africa , tensions have frequently erupted between advocates of
800-489: A former Dikolo chief, to have said that "it was when Alfred Saker came with his Christian religion we stopped the slave trading. The Bimbia used to catch some non natives and sell them as slaves to the Spanish ships that came to Bimbia but never landed because they were afraid of the natives whom they termed "savages." Ekum’a Makundu used to be a pirate and fought the Spanish people for their properties. The Spanish people got furious and decided to bomb Dikolo - Bimbia . When
900-522: A less black and white picture than seen on the memorial in Limbe. He has been supported during his mission by his wife and kids. Alfred Saker first went to Africa in 1844 as part of a missionary team on the island of Fernando Po (now Bioko ). He was, in the opinion of David Livingstone , the most important English missionary in West Africa. He envisioned great possibilities and tried to convince
1000-525: A man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh? 1 Timothy 3:2 states: Now a bishop must be above reproach, married only once, temperate, sensible, respectable, hospitable, an apt teacher, See verse 12 regarding deacons having only one wife. Similar counsel is repeated in the first chapter of the Epistle to Titus . Periodically, Christian reform movements that have sought to rebuild Christian doctrine based on
1100-529: A marriage license. The Roman Catholic Church condemns polygamy; the Catechism of the Catholic Church lists it in paragraph 2387 under the head "Other offenses against the dignity of marriage" and states that it "is not in accord with the moral law." Also in paragraph 1645 under the head "The Goods and Requirements of Conjugal Love" states "The unity of marriage, distinctly recognized by our Lord,
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#17327723407651200-532: A millwright and engineer, and the parent of a large family of children, many of whom died in infancy. Alfred was a weakly babe. His parents could afford only to send him to the National School of the place. He early showed a great love for books. He later entered his father's workshop, carrying with him a thirst for knowledge, study and books. Before he was sixteen, he had constructed a small steam-engine. Conversion – Devotion to Christ There was, indeed,
1300-518: A new monogamous relationship through death, divorce, or simple dissolution of the relationship, regardless of the length of the relationship (serial monogamy). Anthropologists characterize human beings as “mildly polygynous” or “monogamous with polygynous tendencies.” The average pre-historic man with modern descendants appears to have had children with between 1.5 women (70,000 years ago) to 3.3 women (45,000 years ago), except in East Asia. While
1400-450: A number of households, including mobile children. He says that Britons may have ex‑wives or ex‑brothers‑in‑law, but not an ex‑child . According to him, these "unclear families" do not fit the mold of the monogamous nuclear family. Group marriage is a non-monogamous marriage -like arrangement where three or more adults live together, all considering themselves partners, sharing finances, children, and household responsibilities. Polyamory
1500-681: A school there. In Jamaica , there was an end to slavery . A number of ex-slaves who had become Christians decided to become missionaries in Africa. So began the Jamaican Baptist Missionary Society work in 1843, in Fernando Po, today Equatorial Guinea near the coast of Cameroon. In 1849, Saker founded Bethel Baptist Church. In 1853, the Spanish government, instigated by the Jesuit missionaries , insisted on
1600-493: A significant association with rates of polygamy in sub-Saharan Africa, rather than female agricultural contributions (which are typically relatively small in the West African savanna and sahel, where polygyny rates are higher), finding that polygyny rates decrease significantly with child mortality rates. Polygynous marriages fall into two types: sororal polygyny , in which the co-wives are sisters, and non-sororal , where
1700-486: A small Baptist chapel in the hamlet. Alfred Saker's mind was not on the Gospel. One Sabbath evening he was strolling alone through the street, when the singing in a chapel that he passed drew his attention. He entered. He assisted in the choir , and as his gifts drew attention, he was prompt to exercise them in the cottages and hamlets around. He took an active part in every good work. On 4 January 1834, at 19 years old, he
1800-434: A spouse from a monogamous marriage, i.e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time (a series of monogamous relationships). According to Danish scholar Miriam K. Zeitzen, anthropologists treat serial monogamy , in which divorce and remarriage occur, as a form of polygamy as it also can establish a series of households that may continue to be tied by shared paternity and shared income. As such, they are similar to
1900-502: A subset of men fathered children and did so with multiple women (and may suggest that many men either did not procreate or did not have children that survived to create modern ancestors). This circumstance could occur for several reasons, but there are three common interpretations: The serial monogamy interpretation of genetic history would be congruent with other findings, such as the fact that humans form pair bonds (although not necessarily for life) and that human fathers invest in at least
2000-575: A traditional chief. Bimbia chieftaincy stool does not rotate. It is in the same family for all generations. Citations Sources 3°57′14″N 9°14′42″E / 3.95389°N 9.24500°E / 3.95389; 9.24500 Alfred Saker Alfred Saker (21 July 1814 in Wrotham , Kent – 12 March 1880 in Peckham ) was a British Baptist missionary of the Baptist Missionary Society . In 1858 he led
2100-521: A village or hamlet in the neighbour¬hood was left untouched by his zealous ministrations. This, perhaps, may be regarded as the beginning of his ministry. It was a voluntary movement on his part. The church soon called him to exercise his ministry in a more formal way, and for some time, at their request, he occupied every other Sabbath the little chapel at Plaxtol . Dockyard at Devonport – Marriage The death of his father, in 1838, led Saker to seek employment elsewhere. He applied at various dockyards, and
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#17327723407652200-493: Is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among poor families, but also the elite. For example, in the Himalayan Mountains polyandry is related to the scarcity of land; the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In Europe, this outcome
2300-468: Is accepted in the community, the majority of relationships in the society are monogamous in practice – while couples remain in the relationship, which may not be lifelong. In many historical communities, serial monogamy may have been the accepted practice rather than a lifelong monogamous bond. How monogamy is defined when it comes to accepted sexual activity outside of the relationship, however, may differ by society. Recent anthropological data suggest that
2400-622: Is desired by men more for the generation of male offspring whose labor is valued. Anthropologists Douglas R. White and Michael L. Burton discuss and support Jack Goody's observation regarding African male farming systems in "Causes of Polygyny: Ecology, Economy, Kinship, and Warfare" where these authors note: Goody (1973) argues against the female contributions hypothesis. He notes Dorjahn's (1959) comparison of East and West Africa, showing higher female agricultural contributions in East Africa and higher polygyny rates in West Africa, especially
2500-412: Is made clear in the equal personal dignity which must be accorded to husband and wife in mutual and unreserved affection. Polygamy is contrary to conjugal love which is undivided and exclusive." Saint Augustine saw a conflict with Old Testament polygamy. He refrained from judging the patriarchs, but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptability of polygyny. On the contrary, he argued that
2600-554: Is more widespread in Africa than on any other continent, especially in West Africa , and some scholars see the slave trade 's impact on the male-to-female sex ratio as a key factor in the emergence and fortification of polygynous practices in regions of Africa. In the region of sub-Saharan Africa , polygyny is common and deeply rooted in the culture, with 11% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa living in such marriages (25% of
2700-569: Is not satisfied with one woman and seeks out other women is on the path to decline". Other fragments in the Buddhist scripture seem to treat polygamy unfavorably, leading some authors to conclude that Buddhism generally does not approve of it or alternatively regards it as a tolerated, but subordinate, marital model. Polygamy in Thailand was legally recognized until 1935. Polygamy in Myanmar
2800-499: Is on a continuum of family-bonds that includes group marriage. The term does not refer to bigamy as no claim to being married in formal legal terms is made. Scientific studies classify humans as "mildly polygynous" or "monogamous with polygynous tendencies." As mentioned above, data from 1960 to 1980 in the Ethnographic Atlas Codebook indicated that polygamy was common. A separate 1988 review examined
2900-538: Is practiced, but sometimes father and son have a common wife, which is a unique family structure in the world. Other forms of marriage are also present, like group marriage and monogamous marriage. Polyandry (especially fraternal polyandry) is also common in Tibet Some pre-Christian Celtic pagans were known to practice polygamy, although the Celtic peoples wavered between it, monogamy and polyandry depending on
3000-548: Is the accepted form in the vast majority of cases. According to the Ethnographic Atlas Codebook , of 1,231 societies noted between from 1960 to 1980, 588 had frequent polygyny, 453 had occasional polygyny, 186 were monogamous, and 4 had polyandry – although more recent research found some form of polyandry in 53 communities, which is more common than previously thought. In cultures which practice polygamy, its prevalence among that population often correlates with social class and socioeconomic status. Polygamy (taking
3100-448: Is the practice of marrying multiple spouses . When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, it is called polygyny . When a woman is married to more than one husband at the same time, it is called polyandry . In sociobiology and zoology , researchers use polygamy in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple mating . In contrast to polygamy, monogamy is marriage consisting of only two parties. Like "monogamy",
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3200-499: The Qing dynasty (1644–1912). This constitutes a form of de facto polygyny referred to as concubinage . Marriage is the moment at which a new household is formed, but different arrangements may occur depending upon the type of marriage and some polygamous marriages do not result in the formation of a single household. In many polygynous marriages the husband's wives may live in separate households. They can thus be described as
3300-467: The cultural belief that a child can have more than one father. Non-fraternal polyandry occurs when the wives' husbands are unrelated, as among the Nayar tribe of India , where girls undergo a ritual marriage before puberty, and the first husband is acknowledged as the father of all her children. However, the woman may never cohabit with that man, taking multiple lovers instead; these men must acknowledge
3400-598: The 1000 Genomes Project Phase 3 high-coverage Complete Genomics whole-genome dataset. They found that the Southern Han Chinese had a male bias (45% female, indicating that women were likely to reproduce with multiple men). This region is known for its lack of a concept of paternity and for a sense of female equality or superiority. The Musharoff study also found a male bias in Europeans (20% female) during an out-of-Africa migration event that may have increased
3500-591: The Bible alone ( sola scriptura ) have temporarily accepted polygyny as a Biblical practice. For example, during the Protestant Reformation , in a document which was simply referred to as "Der Beichtrat" (or "The Confessional Advice" ), Martin Luther granted the Landgrave Philip of Hesse , who, for many years, had been living "constantly in a state of adultery and fornication ",
3600-723: The British Acting Consul, J.W.B. Lynslager, witnessed an engagement in which the chiefs of the Boobee ( Bubi ) Islands, adjacent to the Amboise (Ambas) Islands, settled the recent dispute and acknowledged King William of Bimbia's authority. A German protectorate over the Cameroons was declared on 12 July 1884. In a communication of 15 October 1884 the German Government described the territories included in
3700-554: The Christian insistence on monogamy and advocates of the traditional practice of polygamy. For instance, Mswati III , the Christian king of Eswatini , has 15 wives. In some instances in recent times, there have been moves for accommodation; in other instances, churches have strongly resisted such moves. African Independent Churches have sometimes referred to those parts of the Old Testament that describe polygamy in defense of
3800-554: The English government to make this area a Crown Colony . He established his first missionary station on the continent near present-day Douala, Cameroon, in 1845. He founded the city of Victoria, Cameroon, and translated the Bible into Douala , the local language. Bibliographic sources Citations [REDACTED] Media related to Alfred Saker at Wikimedia Commons Polygamy Polygamy (from Late Greek πολυγαμία polygamía , "state of marriage to many spouses")
3900-662: The Isubu alone engaged in at least four conflicts, both internal and with rival ethnic groups. Traders exploited this atmosphere, and beginning in 1860, German, French, and Spanish merchants had established contacts and weakened the British monopoly. The Duala had gained a virtual hegemony over trade through the Wouri estuary, and the Isubu had little power left. Young King William was virtually powerless when he succeeded his father in 1878. On 17 February 1844, King William I of Bimbia and
4000-584: The Isubu as King William, although Dick Merchant of Dikolo village and other chiefs eventually opposed his dominance. British traders became the dominant European presence in the region by the mid-19th century, and the Crown used them to enforce abolition of the slave trade in the Gulf of Guinea . In 1844 and 1848, King William signed anti-slavery treaties. In exchange, the traders provided him with annual gifts of alcohol, guns, textiles, and other goods. William
4100-537: The Lord's sake to every authority instituted among men: whether to the king, as the supreme authority, or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to commend those who do right." (1 Peter 2:13,14) Pro-polygamists argue that, as long as polygamists currently do not obtain legal marriage licenses nor seek "common law marriage status" for additional spouses, no enforced laws are being broken any more than when monogamous couples similarly co-habitate without
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4200-626: The Muslim population and 3% of the Christian population, as of 2019). According to Pew, polygamy is widespread in a cluster of countries in West and Central Africa, including Burkina Faso, (36%), Mali (34%) and Nigeria (28%). Anthropologist Jack Goody 's comparative study of marriage around the world utilizing the Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated a historical correlation between the practice of extensive shifting horticulture and polygamy in
4300-468: The Protestant missionaries from Fernando Po and Alfred Saker returned to the mainland with a group of liberated slaves, and bought a large tract of land (16 km x 8 km) from King William of Bimbia . The small group built a school, a church, and other buildings for the mission, thereby founding the city of Victoria, now Limbé (since 1982). They also faced problems of health or the hostility of
4400-452: The West African savanna, where one finds especially high male agricultural contributions. Goody says, "The reasons behind polygyny are sexual and reproductive rather than economic and productive" (1973:189), arguing that men marry polygynously to maximize their fertility and to obtain large households containing many young dependent males. An analysis by James Fenske (2012) found that child mortality and ecologically related economic shocks had
4500-473: The Wouri estuary in 1472. Over the next few decades, more Europeans came to explore the estuary and the rivers that feed it, and to establish trading posts . The Isubu carved out a role for themselves as middlemen, trading ivory , kola nuts , and peppers from the interior. However, a major commodity was slaves , most bound for plantations on nearby islands such as Annobón , Fernando Po , Príncipe , and São Tomé . Some Bimbia legend grants Ekum’a Makundu,
4600-619: The accepted practice rather than a lifelong monogamous bond. The genetic record indicates that monogamy increased within the last 5,000-10,000 years, a period associated with the development of human agriculture, non-communal land ownership, and inheritance. Polygamy exists in three specific forms: Polygyny, the practice wherein a man has more than one wife at the same time, is by far the most common form of polygamy. Many Muslim-majority countries and some countries with sizable Muslim minorities accept polygyny to varying extents both legally and culturally. In several countries, such as India ,
4700-580: The advent of property ownership and therefore inheritance. Men would therefore seek to ensure that their land would go to direct descendants and had a vested interest in limiting the sexual activities of their reproductive partners. It is possible that the concept of marriage and permanent monogamy evolved at this time. Other scientific arguments for monogamy prior to 2003 were based on characteristics of reproductive physiology, such as sperm competition, sexual selection in primates, and body size characteristics. A 2019 synthesis of these and other data found that
4800-547: The chiefs of Bimbia concluded a treaty with Lieutenant Edward Charles Earl, commander of the English brig Rapid in which the slave trade was prohibited in exchange for goods worth $ 1,200, and free trade was guaranteed. On 19 December 1850, a further treaty with Thomas Rodney Eden, captain of the Amphitrite , regulated trade terms, covering subjects such as payment of "comey", a customary fee paid by trading vessels to chiefs in exchange for permission to trade. On 7 February 1855,
4900-439: The co-wives are not related. Polygyny offers husbands the benefit of allowing them to have more children, may provide them with a larger number of productive workers (where workers are family), and allows them to establish politically useful ties with a greater number of kin groups . Senior wives can benefit as well when the addition of junior wives to the family lightens their workload . Wives', especially senior wives', status in
5000-466: The departure of the Baptists from Fernando Po, and suppressed all Protestant worship. The converts resolved to accompany their teachers, and the whole Baptist community removed under Mr. Saker's guidance to Amboises Bay, on the mainland. He purchased a tract of land on the coast from the Bimbia chief, and mapped out the new colony of Victoria. Under his energetic superintendence and untiring personal labor
5100-429: The early upbringing of their children. Serial monogamy would also be consistent with the existence of a "honeymoon period", a period of intense interest in a single sexual partner (with less interest in other women) which may help to keep men invested in staying with the mother of their child for this period. When reciprocated, this "honeymoon period" lasts 18 months to three years in most cases. This would correspond to
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#17327723407655200-535: The fish at night. The dried benyanya is stored away to give way for other fish to be dried also. When the season for meyo is over, the season for mwanjamoto and crayfish (njanga) starts. Women are, from the sale of fish, responsible for looking after of all the house needs such as soap, oil, salt, kerosene etc. Men are responsible for the sale of the big benyanya to pay school fees. Dikolo has six quarters : Mbeng’a Liwoka, Bali, Wona Wonanya, Wona Ngowe, Wona Mbimbi and Mabetefutu with their family heads and
5300-411: The fish, sell it or battler for household needs. During the dry season, the men go to sea in the night. The women work until morning on the efefe to sort out the fish in their different species, put on very big baskets called ‘ndenge’ and start drying them on the ‘wokas’. Woka is a stab make of bamboos from the palm tree . Then carry the wokas to the ‘etaka’ or bandas where a long fire is made to smoke
5400-410: The form of polygyny) is most common in a region known as the "polygamy belt" in West Africa and Central Africa , with the countries estimated to have the highest polygamy prevalence in the world being Burkina Faso , Mali , Gambia , Niger and Nigeria . The term "polygamy" may be referring to one of various relational types, depending upon context. Four overlapping definitions can be adapted from
5500-443: The forms of non-monogamy in prehistorical times is unknown, these rates could be consistent with a society that practices serial monogamy. Anthropological observations indicate that even when polygyny is accepted in the community, the majority of relationships in the society are monogamous in practice – while couples remain in the relationship, which may not be lifelong. Thus, in many historical communities, serial monogamy may have been
5600-481: The ground was soon covered with houses and gardens for the exiles. Mr. Saker's influence upon the native chiefs and their people was most successfully exercised in suppressing many of their cruel and sanguinary customs. Indeed, if he had chosen, he might have made himself their king in the later years of his residence among them. Although he lived so long in a climate deadly to Europeans, he suffered greatly from fever and debility. Shortly after his arrival at Fernando Po,
5700-534: The headquarters of the Baptist missionaries, he visited the tribes on the mainland at the mouth of the Cameroons River. Here he built a house suitable for the work, with his own hands, and gradually acquired acquaintance with the language of the people. Within two years of the commencement of his labors he had reduced their language to writing and prepared a lesson-book for the school which he had formed. With
5800-492: The household formations created through divorce and serial monogamy. Serial monogamy creates a new kind of relative, the "ex-". The "ex-wife", for example, can remain an active part of her "ex-husband's" life, as they may be tied together by legally or informally mandated economic support, which can last for years, including by alimony , child support , and joint custody . Bob Simpson, the British social anthropologist, notes that it creates an "extended family" by tying together
5900-749: The information reached the locals, they made visible peace signal; when the Spaniards came back, some indigenes went to the sea to meet them and make a peace pact and promised never to worry them again. By the 16th century, the Isubu were second only to the Duala in trade. The earliest Isubu merchants were likely tribal chiefs or headmen. Bimbia, the primary Isubu settlement, grew quickly. Europeans traders did their best to support friendly chiefs against their rivals, adulating them with titles such as King , Prince , or Chief . In exchange, these indigenes offered trade monopolies to their patrons and sometimes ceded land. An Isubu chief named Bile became leader of
6000-484: The late wife, in other words, must provide a replacement for her, thus maintaining the marriage alliance. Both levirate and sororate may result in a man having multiple wives. In monogamous societies, wealthy and powerful men may establish enduring relationships with, and established separate household for, multiple female partners, aside from their legitimate wives; a practice accepted in Imperial China up until
6100-582: The law only recognizes polygamous marriages for the Muslim population. Islamic law or sharia is a religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition which allows polygyny. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the hadith . In Arabic , the term sharīʿah refers to God 's ( Arabic : الله Allāh ) immutable divine law and is contrasted with fiqh , which refers to its human scholarly interpretations. Polygyny
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#17327723407656200-459: The legal sphere, defining polygamy can be difficult because of differences in cultural assumptions regarding monogamy. Some societies believe that monogamy requires limiting sexual activity to a single partner for life. Others accept or endorse pre-marital sex prior to marriage. Some societies consider sex outside of marriage or "spouse swapping" to be socially acceptable. Some consider a relationship monogamous even if partners separate and move to
6300-526: The majority of sub-Saharan African societies. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup , Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies between the male-dominated intensive plough-agriculture common in Eurasia and the extensive shifting horticulture found in sub-Saharan Africa. In some of the sparsely-populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, women do much of the work. This favours polygamous marriages in which men seek to monopolize
6400-436: The missionaries of the Baptist Missionary Society were in theory equal, there was nevertheless differences. For example, in the wages: in 1863 Saker received £250 pound , Fuller £125 and Rev. Johnson, the first baptized by Saker, 100 pounds. There were complaints about the actions of Saker from the local believers, but also a Scottish missionary protested his actions. After investigation the missionary organization said Saker
6500-800: The missionary executive to use a small steamer in connection with mission work and Mr. Saker went out in the position of assistant missionary, combining with that the duties of engineer. Origin of the African Mission & The exploration The Act of Emancipation in Jamaica drove numbers of the freed Africans to Gospel the light of life to the land of their fathers, the Dark Continent . Other British candidates like Rev. Joseph. Merrick , with their families, were examined and accepted. In 1845, he joined Douala in Cameroon and founded
6600-529: The modern concept of life-long monogamy has been in place for only the last 1,000 years. Genetic evidence has demonstrated that a greater proportion of men began contributing to the genetic pool between 5,000 and 10,000 years ago, which suggests that reproductive monogamy became more common at that time. This would correspond to the Neolithic agricultural revolution. During this time, formerly nomadic societies began to claim and settle land for farming, leading to
6700-693: The number of men successfully reproducing with women, perhaps by replenishing the genetic pool in Europe. The study did confirm a more typical female bias in Yorubans (63% female), Europeans (84%), Punjabis (82%), and Peruvians (56%). Buddhism does not regard marriage as a sacrament ; it is purely a secular affair. Normally Buddhist monks do not participate in it (though in some sects priests and monks do marry). Hence marriage receives no religious sanction. Forms of marriage, in consequence, vary from country to country. The Parabhava Sutta states that "a man who
6800-494: The paternity of their children (and hence demonstrate that no caste prohibitions have been breached) by paying the midwife . The women remain in their maternal home, living with their brothers, and property is passed matrilineally . A similar form of matrilineal, de facto polyandry can be found in the institution of walking marriage among the Mosuo tribe of China. Serial monogamy refers to remarriage after divorce or death of
6900-439: The period necessary to bring a child to relative independence in the traditionally small, interdependent, communal societies of pre-Neolithic humans, before they settled into agricultural communities. While genetic evidence typically displays a bias towards a smaller number of men reproducing with more women, some regions or time periods have shown the opposite. In a 2019 investigation, Musharoff et al. applied modern techniques to
7000-476: The pioneer of the work in Cameroon. He had a talent for learning languages and within a short time he preached in Isubu and Douala. He died on the way to Jamaica in the year 1849. Another Jamaican was Rev. Joseph Jackson Fuller (1825-1908), born into slavery in Jamaica. In 1850 he was accepted as a missionary and eight years later he became pastor. Fuller wrote in the period in Fernando Po about tensions between
7100-612: The polygamy of the Fathers, which was tolerated by the Creator because of fertility, was a diversion from His original plan for human marriage. Augustine wrote: "That the good purpose of marriage, however, is better promoted by one husband with one wife, than by a husband with several wives, is shown plainly enough by the very first union of a married pair, which was made by the Divine Being Himself." Augustine taught that
7200-647: The population. They opened churches, dispensaries and centers of care and trained a great number of Cameroonian pastors, tailors, shoe-makers, masons and carpenters who helped them build the Church of Béthel in 1860. In 1847, the Jamaican Joseph Merrick had completed a translation of the Gospel of Matthew into the Isubu language . A year later Saker himself started a translation in Douala. In 1872 he had
7300-441: The practice of levirate marriage . In such cases, the deceased man's heir may inherit his assets and wife; or, more usually, his brothers may marry the widow. This provides support for the widow and her children (usually also members of the brothers' kin group) and maintains the tie between the husbands' and wives' kin groups. The sororate resembles the levirate, in that a widower must marry the sister of his dead wife. The family of
7400-523: The practice of polygamy and have upheld monogamy alone as normative. Nevertheless, some Christians groups in different periods have practiced, or currently do practice, polygamy. Some Christians actively debate whether the New Testament or Christian ethics allows or forbids polygamy. In the New Testament , Jesus recalled the earlier scriptures , noting that a man and a wife "shall become one flesh". Paul stated in one of his letters that "For
7500-469: The practice. The illegality of polygamy in certain areas creates, according to certain Bible passages, additional arguments against it. Paul the Apostle writes "submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also because of conscience" (Romans 13:5), for "the authorities that exist have been established by God." (Romans 13:1) St Peter concurs when he says to "submit yourselves for
7600-447: The practices of 849 societies from before Western imperialism and colonization. The review found that 708 of the societies (83%) accepted polygyny. Only 16% were monogamous and 1% polyandrous. Subsequent evidence in 2012 found that polyandry (in which women have multiple male partners) was likely in pre-history; it also identified 53 communities studied between 1912 and 2010 with either formal or informal polyandry, indicating that polyandry
7700-631: The printing-press and material sent to him by the church at Devonport he printed schoolbooks for the use of his scholars and portions of the New Testament. In 1849, the church at Cameroons was formed, and a Christian civilization began to spread itself there through Mr. Saker's efforts. He induced the people to labor with something like regularity in agriculture, introducing various plants, such as bread-fruit, mangoes, oranges, and other fruits and vegetables for daily sustenance. These productions, moreover, enabled them to obtain manufactured articles from
7800-410: The production of women "who are valued both as workers and as child bearers". Goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect and varied, and also discusses more traditionally male-dominated though relatively extensive farming systems such as those traditionally common in much of West Africa, especially in the West African savanna , where more agricultural work is done by men, and where polygyny
7900-719: The protectorate, which included Bimbia. The Bimbia are mostly fishermen. In the thirties, the fishing industry was flourishing. Fishing is a communal labour as it was not possible for one man to be able to set up his fishing equipment. Therefore, the men of the village came together and made the equipment of one person then went to the other. The Bimbia man fishes in many different ways namely: Ndemba , Ngoto , Mbunja , Efese and Moleke . The women are yam planters. People come to buy benyanya , smoked njanga , smoked mwanjamoto and other fish. Women come from chop farm with raw food to exchange for fish and bring things like accra banana , groundnuts and koki beans . The women dry all
8000-647: The reason patriarchs had many wives was not because of fornication, but because they wanted more children. He supported his premise by showing that their marriages, in which husband was the head, were arranged according to the rules of good management: those who are in command ( quae principantur ) in their society were always singular, while subordinates ( subiecta ) were multiple. He gave two examples of such relationships: dominus-servus – master-servant (in older translation: slave ) and God-soul . The Bible often equates worshiping multiple gods, i.e. idolatry to fornication. Augustine relates to that: "On this account there
8100-454: The service of Christ in Africa. He owed much to his highly esteemed pastor, the Rev. Thos. Horton. In this wish he was encouraged by his devoted wife. In 1843, with his wife, he was hired as a missionary by the Baptist Missionary Society and took a ship to Jamaica , before arriving at Port Clarence ( Malabo ) on Fernando Poo (island of Bioko , Equatorial Guinea ) in 1844. It was the purpose of
8200-519: The ships frequenting the river, and in the course of a few years a civilized community was established. He taught his converts the industrial arts, and soon found himself surrounded by artisans of all sorts, carpenters, smiths, bricklayers, etc. The more forward scholars soon became helpful in the printing-office work, and aided in the translation and printing of the Scriptures in the Duala tongue, which
8300-537: The term "polygamy" is often used in a de facto sense, applied regardless of whether a state recognizes the relationship. In many countries, the law only recognises monogamous marriages (a person can only have one spouse, and bigamy is illegal), but adultery is not illegal, leading to a situation of de facto polygamy being allowed without legal recognition for non-official "spouses". Worldwide, different societies variously encourage, accept or outlaw polygamy. In societies which allow or tolerate polygamy, polygyny
8400-483: The term refers to a physical, rather than a spiritual, union. Such a claim also contradicts Paul's statement regarding authority other each other's bodies. Some Christian theologians argue that in Matthew 19:3–9 and referring to Genesis 2:24, Jesus explicitly states a man should have only one wife: Have ye not read, that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female, And said, For this cause shall
8500-567: The time period and the area. In some areas this continued even after Christianization began, for instance the Brehon Laws of Gaelic Ireland explicitly allowed for polygamy, especially amongst the noble class. Some modern Celtic pagan religions accept the practice of polygamy to varying degrees, though how widespread the practice is within these religions is unknown. Although the Old Testament describes numerous examples of polygamy among devotees to God, most Christian groups have rejected
8600-499: The various coastal groups. Cameroonian Pidgin English began to develop at this time. Isubu society was changed fundamentally by the European trade . European goods became status symbols , and some rulers appointed Western traders and missionaries as advisors. Large numbers of Isubu grew wealthy, leading to rising class tensions. Competition escalated between coastal groups and even between related settlements. Between 1855 and 1879,
8700-436: The weight of the evidence supports a mating bond that may include polygyny or polyandry, but is most likely to be predominantly serial monogamy. More recent genetic data has clarified that, in most regions throughout history, a smaller proportion of men contributed to human genetic history compared to women. Assuming an equal number of men and women are born and survive to reproduce, this would indicate that historically, only
8800-459: The whites from England and the former slaves from Jamaica. The British showed themselves in a paternalistic attitude and a certain degree of cultural domination. Fuller realized a lot of work in education, oversaw the printing and negotiated with the local king. He also translated the book Pilgrims Progress in Douala. He left Cameroon in 1888 and until his death he lived in England. Although all
8900-516: The whole Bible translated in this language and 200 copies were printed at his own press. In the meantime, Saker established a European settlement named Victoria. The Protestant missionaries were forced to leave the Roman Catholic Spanish island of Fernando Po and could now join forces with Saker from this settlement. One of the fascinating things in the work of Saker was working with people from Jamaica. Joseph Merrick can be seen as
9000-482: The wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does. Likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does". However, some look to Paul 's writings to the Corinthians : "Do you not know that he who is joined to a prostitute becomes one body with her? For, as it is written, 'The two will become one flesh. ' " Supporters of polygamy claim that this verse indicates that
9100-423: The work of Ulrich Reichard and others: Biologists , biological anthropologists , and behavioral ecologists often use polygamy in the sense of a lack of sexual or genetic (reproductive) exclusivity. When cultural or social anthropologists and other social scientists use the term polygamy, the meaning is social or marital polygamy. In contrast, marital monogamy may be distinguished between: Outside of
9200-597: Was also asked to forbid practices the British viewed as barbaric, such as sacrificing a chief's wife upon his death. With William's blessing, Bimbia became a haven for repatriated slaves and escapees from the illicit trade, which continued for many more years. The British also endeavored to educate and Christianise the Bimbians. King William rebuffed the earliest missionaries because he did not agree with their insistence on prayer and opposition to polygamy . In 1844, however, Joseph Merrick convinced William to let him open
9300-598: Was appointed in Devonport , preparing drawings for the Admiralty. In October 1839, he was sent for nine months to the dockyard at Deptford , to superintend the erection of machinery. In February 1840, in St Marys, Newington, London , he was married to Helen Jessup and returned to Devonport. Desire for a missionary life In the early days of his Christian life, he had formed the desire to consecrate his powers to
9400-471: Was avoided through the social practice of impartible inheritance , under which most siblings would be disinherited. Fraternal polyandry was traditionally practiced among nomadic Tibetans in Nepal , parts of China and part of northern India, in which two or more brothers would marry the same woman. It is most common in societies marked by high male mortality. It is associated with partible paternity ,
9500-437: Was baptized by Mr. Fremling, of Foots cray , and became a member of the church in the village of his nativity. With the public devotion of himself to Christ, he began to extend his labours in every direction. His evenings were either given to self-improvement or he would go to some member's house, where a few lowly people were gathered for converse and prayer. His fitness for evangelistic service became more and more apparent. Not
9600-403: Was his lifelong task. In 1851, the mission was reduced by death to such a degree that not a single fellow-laborer remained of those who went out with him, except one or two colored brethren. All his European colleagues were gone, and he was left alone. Hitherto he had been in a subordinate position, but now from necessity he was obliged to take the lead. In 1858, the Spanish authorities expelled
9700-439: Was more common worldwide than previously believed. The authors found that polyandry was most common in egalitarian societies, and suspected contributors to polyandry included fewer men (due to the existence or threat of high adult male mortality or absence/travel) and higher male contributions towards food production. Polyandry still appears to occur in the minority of societies. Regardless of the type of polygamy, even when polygyny
9800-418: Was not guilty, however, the way he his treated the local believers had to change. The Scottish missionary was fired. This was of the opinion that the three performance Saker - Bible translation, printing and the foundation of Victoria - had been largely due to Merrick and Fuller. By the end of the 1870s Saker stopped his work and returned to his homeland, where he died in 1880. The history of Alfred Saker shows
9900-528: Was outlawed in 2015. In Sri Lanka , polyandry was legal in the kingdom of Kandy, but outlawed by British after conquering the kingdom in 1815. When the Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, the concubines of others were added to the list of inappropriate partners. Polyandry in Tibet was traditionally common, as was polygyny, and having several wives or husbands was never regarded as having sex with inappropriate partners. Most typically, fraternal polyandry
10000-526: Was the first person to go to Saker's school and the first to become Christian. The predominant Isubu oral history holds that the ethnic group hails from Mboko , the area southwest of Mount Cameroon . Tradition makes them the descendants of Isuwu na Monanga , who led their migration to the west bank of the Wouri estuary . When a descendant of Isuwu named Mbimbi became king, the people began to refer to their territories as Bimbia. Portuguese traders reached
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