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82-470: The Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps ( XPCC ; 新疆生产建设兵团; 新疆兵团), also known as Bingtuan ("The Corps"), trading with the external name China Xinjiang Group , is a state-owned enterprise and paramilitary organization in China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region . The XPCC was established in 1954 under the orders of Mao Zedong , and developed sparsely populated areas in its early decades, taking

164-630: A civil war , caused a near-civil war in Egypt, and caused the downfall of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan . In the contemporary era, the term "fundamentalism" is usually applied to denote these militant Islamist vanguards; although historians like Itzchak Weismann argue that it is more accurate to describe them as its radical offshoots. Osama b. Ladin and Al-Qaʾida belong to a fourth phase of Islamic fundamentalism, known as Salafi-jihadism ,

246-574: A "state in a state". It is led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Xinjiang Committee secretary , currently Ma Xingrui , though the CCP secretary of the XPCC handles the daily affairs of the organization. The XPCC draws from the traditional Chinese tuntian system, a policy of settling military units in frontier areas so that they become self-sufficient in food, and similar policies in

328-525: A clear structure or evident chain of command. Moreover, it is still a matter of debate whether Boko Haram has links to terror outfits outside Nigeria and its fighters have frequently clashed with Nigeria's central government. A US commander stated that Boko Haram is likely linked to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), although professor Paul Lubeck points out that no evidence is presented for any claims of material international support. Ansar Deen

410-481: A critic of those who are called Islamic fundamentalists, also finds fault with the term because: [M]any liberal, progressive, or moderate Muslims would describe themselves as usulis, or fundamentalist, without thinking that this carries a negative connotation. In the Islamic context, it makes much more sense to describe the fanatical reductionism and narrow-minded literalism of some groups as puritanical (a term that in

492-411: A first political commissar, a political commissar, and a commander. The first political commissars of each XPCC division are their committee secretaries. The XPCC's 14 divisions which are then subdivided into 185 regiment-level entities (including regiments, farms, and ranches), scattered throughout Xinjiang, mostly in previously unpopulated or sparsely populated areas. The divisions are: In May 1953,

574-640: A large internal structure and is a retained name for the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology ). According to scholar Anne-Marie Brady , the State Council Information Office is an example of a "public face" for "foreign propaganda work" of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party . Chinese public universities' internal CCP committee and the universities' office of

656-474: A leading historian of Islam, believes that although "the use of this term is established and must be accepted": It remains unfortunate and can be misleading. "Fundamentalist" is a Christian term. It seems to have come into use in the early years of the last century, and it denotes certain Protestant churches and organizations, more particularly, those that maintain the literal divine origin and inerrancy of

738-750: A more appropriate term than the one recently used in the West, 'fundamentalism,' to cover the meaning of what we name Islamic awakening or revival." In 1988, the University of Chicago , backed by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , launched The Fundamentalism Project , devoted to researching fundamentalism in the worlds major religions, Christianity , Islam , Judaism , Hinduism , Buddhism and Confucianism . It defined fundamentalism as "approach, or set of strategies, by which beleaguered believers attempt to preserve their distinctive identity as

820-544: A movement that strives to move the battle against " infidelity " on an international scale; since the turn of the twenty-first century. Muslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century Khawarij sect. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting

902-575: A name" is when an organization that has absorbed another can continue to use said organization's name for bureaucratic purposes. For example, the United Front Work Department (UFWD) (a communist party institution) uses the name of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (OCAO) (a state institution), which it absorbed in 2018, when making statements related to overseas Chinese affairs. In this case,

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984-621: A new word, bonyadegar , by translating literally the English term fundamental-ist." Differences between Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism include (according to Bernard Lewis ): "In western usage, these words [Revivalism and Fundamentalism] have a rather specific connotation; they suggest a certain type of religiosity- emotional indeed sentimental; not intellectual, perhaps even anti-intellectual; and in general apolitical and even anti-political. Fundamentalists are against liberal theology and biblical criticism and in favor of

1066-580: A number of vanguard groups sprang up which turned to violence and terror in their struggle against "apostate" regimes. In Iran , a radical Shiʿa combination of Khomeini 's doctrine of wilayat-i faqih (guardianship of the jurist) and ʿAli Shariʿati 's modernist social reinterpretations of the Qur’an would form the ideological basis of the 1979 Iranian revolution . During the Cold War following World War II , some NATO governments, particularly those of

1148-732: A pact with the MNLA forming the Islamic Republic of Azawad. It is designated a terrorist group by the United States Department of State and the United Nations Security Council . Ansar al-Sharia or Ansar al-Shariah is a name used by a collection of radical or militant Islamist groups or militias, in at least eight countries. While they share names and ideology, they lack a unified command structure. The eight countries in which

1230-551: A people or group ... by a selective retrieval of doctrines, beliefs, and practices from a sacred past." A 2013 study by Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschung finds that Islamic fundamentalism is widespread among European Muslims with the majority saying religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam. A recent study shows that some European Muslims perceive Western governments as inherently hostile towards Islam as

1312-430: A predominantly Muslim population, even when they adopt laws along European lines, are influenced by Islamic rules and precepts of sharia , which cause conflict with international law on human rights. According to Mayer, features found in conflict include severe deficiencies in criminal procedure, harsh criminal penalties causing great suffering, discrimination against women and non-Muslims, and prohibition against abandoning

1394-479: A radical approach to Takfir , whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of death. Islamic fundamentalists, or at least "reformist" fundamentalists, believe that Islam is based on the Qur'an, Hadith and Sunnah and "criticize the tradition, the commentaries, popular religious practices ( maraboutism , the cult of saints), deviations, and superstitions. They aim to return to

1476-453: A return to fundamentals-i.e. to the divine inerrant text of the scriptures . For the so call fundamentalists of Islam these are not and never have been the issues. Liberal theology have not hitherto made much headway in Islam, and the divinity and inerrancy of the Quran are still central dogmas of the faith ... Unlike their Christian namesakes, the Islamic fundamentalists do not set aside but on

1558-529: A source of identity. This perception, however, declined significantly after the emergence of ISIS, especially among young and educated European Muslims. The modern Islamic fundamentalist movements have their origins in the late 19th century. According to the Arab poet Adunis , the Islamic World experienced an influx of European ideas, values and thoughts during the late nineteenth century. The thinkers in

1640-834: Is a fundamentalist Islamic terrorist group residing primarily in the North Caucasus of Russia . Created from the remnants of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI) in October 2007, it adheres to an ideology of Salafist-takfiri jihad that seeks to establish an Islamic caliphate within the North Caucasus and Volga region (primarily the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan ). Many of their fighters are also present in jihadist battlegrounds such as Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and throughout Central Asia. Many plots involving Chechen and other indigenous ethnic groups of

1722-658: Is a ministerial-level institution under the State Council and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region regional government. It has administrative authority over medium-sized cities, settlements and farms in Xinjiang. It provides services such as healthcare, policing, judiciary, and education. Nominally subject to the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, its internal affairs, including city and reclaimed land administration, are separate from that of

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1804-422: Is also largely governed by fundamentalist principles (see Wahhabi movement ) but Johannes J.G. Jansen disagrees, arguing that it is more akin to a traditional Muslim state, where a power separation exists between "princes" ( umarā ) and "scholars" ( ulama ). In contrast, Jansen argues that Khomeini came to power by advocating the formation of a system of Islamic government where the highest level of authority

1886-503: Is also sometimes referred to as "one institution, two brands." Within Chinese bureaucratic nomenclature, "one institution with two names" is distinct from "co-located offices" ( Chinese : 合署办公 ; pinyin : héshǔ bàngōng ). In the latter situation, two institutions or agencies retain their distinct structure and personnel, and only share office spaces and physical resources. An organization can acquire an additional name when it

1968-531: Is an Islamist militant group in the country of Mali that wants Shariah law in Mali. It opposes Sufi shrines. Its main support comes from the Ifora tribe of Tuaregs . The group is connected to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb . It took part in the 2012 Tuareg Rebellion . They destroyed the tomb of a Sufi saint which was a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It managed to take control of Northern Mali, and they formed

2050-566: Is in the hands of the ulamā (see Wilayat al Faqih ). Islamic fundamentalist groups include Al-Qaeda , the Taliban , Abu Sayyaf , Ansar al-Islam , Armed Islamic Group of Algeria , Army of Islam , Boko Haram , Egyptian Islamic Jihad , Lashkar-e-Taiba , Jaish-e-Mohammed , Jemaah Islamiyah , Hamas , Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami , Harkat-ul-Mujahideen , Indian Mujahideen , Islamic State , Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan , Tahrir al-Sham , Hizb-ut Tahrir among many others. Caucasus Emirate

2132-568: Is in their scholasticism and their legalism. They base themselves not only on the Qur'an, but also on the Traditions of the Prophet, and on the corpus of transmitted theological and legal learning. John Esposito has attacked the term for its association "with political activism , extremism , fanaticism , terrorism , and anti-Americanism ", saying "I prefer to speak of Islamic revivalism and Islamic activism." Khaled Abou El Fadl of UCLA,

2214-423: Is often described as being responsible for the popularity of contemporary Islamic fundamentalism. Definitions vary as to what Islamic fundamentalism exactly is and how it differs from Islamism (or political Islam) or Islamic revivalism . ...didn't hesitate to attend Hindu ceremonies. Khomeini never proposed giving Iranian Christians and Jews the status of dhimmi (protected communities) as provided for in

2296-409: Is responsible for multiple duties or uses an additional name when dealing with foreign institutions. This happens when two institutions or offices merged, with the original institution taking on the responsibilities and duties of the merged office by using only its existing resources. Such organizations usually do not have separate leadership or staff because of additional names. "Externally retaining

2378-415: Is sinful"), is a jihadist militant organization based in the northeast of Nigeria. It is an Islamist movement which strongly opposes man-made laws and westernization. Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2001, the organization seeks to establish sharia law in the country. The group is also known for attacking Christians and bombing Mosques and churches. The movement is divided into three factions. In 2011, Boko Haram

2460-462: Is the same entity as the city government, the division political commissar the same person as the city committee secretary, the division commander the same person as the city's mayor, and so forth. Ten XPCC-administered cities are nominally listed as " sub-prefectural-level cities " of Xinjiang, but the local government is usually not involved in the administration of these cities. XPCC is predominantly composed of Chinese citizens of Han ethnicity. While

2542-588: Is watching and we know which officials and entities are responsible for the abuses against the Uyghur people." Turkel added: The XPCC is essentially a parallel government in Xinjiang and has been directly involved in implementing the surveillance, mass detention, and forced labor of Uyghurs. In July 2020, the United States announced Global Magnitsky Act sanctions on XPCC in connection with human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities. XPCC

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2624-582: Is widely regarded as the spiritual father of the Salafiyya movement, marks the rise of Islamic fundamentalist movements. He advocated fundamentalist causes through the early Islamic journal Al-Manar that operated for about thirty-five years and popularised his political theory of Islamic state after the First World War ; as an alternative model against rising currents of secularism and nationalism . Influenced by Rida's ideals that campaigned for

2706-636: The Arab world and Abul A'ala Mawdudi (1903–1979 CE) in South Asia , asserted that Islam is relevant for all times and must reign supreme. They idealised the era of Muhammad and his companions , and sought to revive its "purity" and early Islamic power . For them, the economic, political and military problems of the Islamic World are due to Muslim negligence in strictly adhering to the tenets of sharia . The trajectory of Islamic fundamentalism

2788-692: The Sino-Soviet split , rioting occurred in Yining and 60,000 ethnic minorities living near the border fled to the Soviet Union. The Chinese government feared that the USSR was trying to destabilize China and start a war. XPCC was ordered to cultivate the farms of the exiles. By 1966 XPCC had a population of 1.48 million. The XPCC was severely damaged by the Cultural Revolution . In 1975 it

2870-482: The Tang and Qing dynasties. Construction corps were set up for sparsely populated frontier regions, including Heilongjiang , Inner Mongolia , and Xinjiang. After the Chinese Communist Party took control of Xinjiang in 1949, People's Liberation Army (PLA) forces deployed into Xinjiang were commanded to start production in the area. In 1953, PLA there were separated into National Defense and Production Divisions. XPCC

2952-696: The reformists who kept to scriptural religious discourse, and modernists who campaigned to adopt Western ideals and institutions. The religious endeavours of the Syrian-Egyptian Salafi scholar Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE) marks the transition from proto-fundamentalism to the second phase of Islamic fundamentalism. Rida became the first major theologian to comprehensively elucidate the foundational principles of an Islamic state in its modern iteration, and these doctrines would be readily adopted by later Islamic fundamentalists. The Wahhabi movement, an Arabian fundamentalist movement that began in

3034-525: The secular , democratic state, such as the internationally supported Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Anthony J. Dennis notes that "Western and Islamic visions of the state, the individual and society are not only divergent, they are often totally at odds." Among human rights fundamentalist Muslims oppose are: The 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran is seen by some scholars as a success of Islamic fundamentalism. Some scholars argue that Saudi Arabia

3116-515: The 18th century, had also gained traction and spread during the 19th and 20th centuries. After the First World War , Rashid Rida would be highly influenced by the Hanbali puritanical and revivalist doctrines of the 13th century Hanbalite theologian Ibn Taymiyya and the Wahhabi movement; and began to ardently campaign against Western influence and modernist ideas. The ideas of Rashid Rida, who

3198-560: The 37 settlements they control, "allowing the Corps to spread advanced culture and Chinese culture, while taking in and infusing culture of ethnic minority in Xinjiang". At the end of the 20th century, XPCC's military role was given instead to the Xinjiang Military District , a part of the current Western Theater Command that includes all of western China. XPCC military personnel are mostly reservists or militia. XPCC

3280-475: The Autonomous Region and under direct control of the central government. The XPCC has been described to operate as a "state within a state" and has been considered by scholars as acting as a de facto prefecture-level governmental entity. The XPCC's internal affairs, including the administration of its cities and reclaimed land, is separate from that of the Autonomous Region and under direct control of

3362-498: The Bible . In this, they oppose the liberal and modernist theologians, who tend to have a more critical, historical view of Scripture. Among Muslim theologians, there is as yet no such liberal or modernist approach to the Qur'an, and all Muslims, in their attitude to the text of the Qur'an, are in principle at least fundamentalists. Where the so-called Muslim fundamentalists differ from other Muslims and indeed from Christian fundamentalists

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3444-548: The Han are by far the largest group of XPCC workers, their relative numbers have declined: from 1980 to 1993 the overall population remained constant, while Han membership declined slightly from 90% to 88%. XPCC created many publicly traded subsidiary companies. XPCC uses the name "China Xinjian Group" for its economic activities. XPCC plays an outsized role in Xinjiang's economy, with the organization producing CN¥350 billion ( US$ 52 billion ), or around 19.7% of Xinjiang's economy, while

3526-561: The Islamic religion. In 1990, under Saudi leadership, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , a group representing all Muslim majority nations, adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam , which substantially diverges from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The Cairo declaration lacks provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of

3608-411: The Islamic religious history, from the early Islamic centuries to the contemporary times. During the 1990s, the post-Soviet states used "Islamic fundamentalism" as a synonym for " Wahhabism ". Some 20th century preachers and writers sometimes dubbed Islamic fundamentalist include Sayyid Qutb , Ibn Saud , Abul Ala Mawdudi , and Israr Ahmed . The Wahhabi movement and its funding by Saudi Arabia

3690-666: The Islamists had become important allies in supporting governments, such as Egypt, which were friendly to U.S. interests. By the late 1970s, however, some fundamentalist groups had become militaristic leading to threats and changes to existing regimes. The overthrow of the Shah in Iran and rise of the Ayatollah Khomeini was one of the most significant signs of this shift. Subsequently, fundamentalist forces in Algeria caused

3772-608: The Muslim world reacted to modernity in three major ways. Secularists like Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , etc. considered Islam to be responsible for the backwardness of Muslims; gradually abandoning religion and adopted Western ideas. Meanwhile, Modernists like Muhammad Abduh in Egypt advocated reforms to reconcile with modernity; while emphasizing adherence to basic Islamic ideals. A third current; widely known as Islamic fundamentalism, pioneered by Rashid Rida across

3854-824: The North Caucasus have also been thwarted in Europe over the recent years. Al-Shabaab , meaning "the Youth", is a Somalia-based cell of the militant Islamist group al-Qaeda , formally recognized in 2012. Al-Shabaab is designated as a terrorist group by countries including Australia, Canada, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Congregation of the People of Tradition for Proselytism and Jihad (Arabic: جماعة اهل السنة للدعوة والجهاد Jamā'a Ahl al-sunnah li-da'wa wa al-jihād), better known by its Hausa name Boko Haram (pronounced [bōːkòː hàrâm], "Western education

3936-468: The PLA's 25th, 26th and 27th Divisions from the 9th Corps were reorganized as 7th, 8th and 9th Agriculture Construction Division of the XPCC, respectively. The XPCC has settled Han in Xinjiang and has built eleven medium-sized cities during its history, and now controls ten of them. The governments of these cities are combined entirely with the division that controls them. For example, the division headquarters

4018-697: The U.S. footsteps, Global Affairs Canada imposed sanctions against the XPCC in January 2021 due to human rights abuses. In March 2021, the Council of the European Union listed the XPCC public security bureau as an entity subject to restrictive measures. The reason given for this listing was that this entity is "responsible for serious human rights violations, in particular large-scale arbitrary detentions and degrading treatment inflicted upon Uyghurs and people from other Muslim ethnic minorities". The XPCC

4100-523: The United States and the United Kingdom, launched covert and overt campaigns to encourage and strengthen fundamentalist groups in the Middle East and southern Asia. These groups were seen as a hedge against potential expansion by the Soviet Union, and as a means to prevent the growth of nationalistic movements that were not necessarily favorable toward the interests of the Western nations. By the 1970s,

4182-485: The West invokes a particular historical experience) Eli Berman argues that "radical Islam" is a better term for many post-1920s movements starting with the Muslim Brotherhood , because these movements are seen as practicing "unprecedented extremism ", thus, they do not qualify as movements which are returning to the practice of historic fundamentals. In contrast, American author Anthony J. Dennis accepts

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4264-466: The XPCC has built farms, towns, and cities, provided land and employment to disbanded military units, and re-settled Han migrants from other parts of China in what has been called a campaign of assimilation . The XPCC operates cities, where it provides prisons, healthcare, policing, judiciary, and education, and has stakes in numerous publicly traded companies. It is extensively involved in economic, political and military affairs of Xinjiang, being called

4346-405: The XPCC has eleven publicly traded subsidiaries. They are: XPCC operates its own educational system covering primary, secondary and tertiary education (including two universities, Shihezi University (石河子大学) and Tarim University (塔里木大学)); its own daily newspaper, Bingtuan Daily ; and its own TV stations at both provincial and division levels. One institution with two names Generally,

4428-620: The XPCC produced 30% of China's cotton output. XPCC has a mix of factory farming and smaller farms. XPCC dominates Xinjiang's agriculture and controls nearly a quarter of Xinjiang's arable land. During its history, XPCC established significant mining and mining-related industries, most of which subsequently were handed over to the Xinjiang government. XPCC is also involved in tertiary industries, including trade, distribution, real estate, tourism, construction and insurance. The XPCC has thousands of subsidiary companies. The Center for Advanced Defense Studies has identified 2,923 subsidiaries. Currently

4510-405: The beliefs attributed to Islamic fundamentalists are that the primary sources of Islam (the Quran , Hadith , and Sunnah ), should be interpreted in a literal and originalist way; that corrupting non-Islamic influences should be eliminated from every part of Muslims' lives; and that the societies, economies, and governance of Muslim-majority countries should return to the fundamentals of Islam,

4592-486: The central government. It has sub-provincial powers on par with sub-provincial cities . The XPCC is headed by the Communist Party Secretary of Xinjiang , who is "executive political commissar " ex officio. The XPCC's own party secretary, usually a ministerial-level official, typically concurrently serves as its political commissar and acts as its highest day-to-day authority, and is considered to be

4674-556: The contrary embrace much of the post-scriptural scholastic tradition of their faith, in both its theological and its legal aspects." Islamic fundamentalism (at least among Sunni Muslims) traditionally tends to fall into "traditionalist" and "reformist" tendencies: The term "Islamic fundamentalism" has been criticized by Bernard Lewis , Khaled Abou El Fadl , Eli Berman , and John Esposito , among others. Many have proposed replacing it with another term, such as "puritanical", "Islamic revivalism" or "activism", and "radical Islam". Lewis,

4756-681: The establishment of an Islamic state in the aftermath of the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate , popular Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamaat-e Islami carried the banner of fundamentalism during the interwar period . The Brothers incorporated the Salafiyya message into a comprehensive political programme, while the Jamaʿat envisioned an all-out battle against Western influence and culture. The combination of religion and politics offered by these movements established contemporary Islamic fundamentalism. The emergence of

4838-497: The fatwa which states that "every Muslim who pleads for the suspension of the shari'a is an apostate and can be killed. The killing of those apostates cannot be prosecuted under Islamic law because this killing is justified" as going beyond, and unsupported by, the Qur'an. Tibi asserts, "The command to slay reasoning Muslims is un-Islamic, an invention of Islamic fundamentalists". Islamic fundamentalism's push for sharia and an Islamic state has come into conflict with conceptions of

4920-655: The fields of: Historian Ervand Abrahamian (who essentially devoted a book— Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic —to why Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini , leader of the Iranian Revolution, was not a fundamentalist but a populist, and calls the term "Islamic fundamentalism" in general "not only confusing but also misleading and even downright wrong"), notes that in the Islamic Republic of Iran, supporters of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini "finding no equivalent in Persian or Arabic" for fundamentalist, "have proudly coined

5002-743: The founding texts." Examples of individuals who adhere to this tendency are the 18th-century Shah Waliullah in India and Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab in the Arabian Peninsula. This view is commonly associated with Salafism today. Along with adherents of other fundamentalist movements, Islamic fundamentalists hold the view that the problems of the world stem from secular influences. Some scholars of Islam, such as Bassam Tibi , believe that, contrary to their own message, Islamic fundamentalists are not actually traditionalists. He refers to fatwahs which have been issued by fundamentalists such as

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5084-474: The groups have operated are Pakistan , Yemen , Libya , Tunisia , Mali , Egypt , Mauritania , and Syria . Some states and movements that are perceived or claimed to be Islamic fundamentalists have been criticized for their human rights record by international organizations. The acceptance of international law on human rights has been somewhat limited even in Muslim countries that are not seen as fundamentalist. Ann Elizabeth Mayer writes that states with

5166-535: The model of the traditional tuntian system of setting military units in frontier areas. The XPCC was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution , and was outright abolished in 1975, before being re-established in 1981, partly due to the Soviet-Afghan War . It re-established its economic dominance over Xinjiang afterwards, also being responsible for maintenance against the " three evils " (separatism, religious extremism, and terrorism). In its history,

5248-544: The next phase occurred in the context of the de-colonialisation era following the Second World War , during which Islamic fundamentalists were persecuted by authoritarian regimes and became radicalized. The radical new teachings were epitomized in the treatises of Egyptian Islamist scholar Sayyid Qutb , which elucidated notions such as the return of the Jahiliyya (pre-Islamic barbarity). Influenced by Qutb,

5330-609: The organization may have a separate nominal leadership team for the nominal organization, that concurrently can also serve in the leadership of the bigger organization (e.g. Chen Xu both officially serves as the director of the OCAO and a deputy head of the UFWD). In some cases, the nominal organization can seemingly retain their internal structures (e.g. the China National Space Administration seemingly has

5412-449: The per capita GDP was CN¥98,748 ( US$ 14,680 ). The area and population of the XPCC are generally given as part of Xinjiang's total figures, but XPCC's GDP is generally reported separately. XPCC's primary economic activity remains agriculture , including cotton , fruit , vegetables , food crops, vegetable oils , and sugar beets . Important products are cotton, tomatoes , ketchup , Korla pears , Turpan grapes , and wine . In 2018

5494-500: The president increasingly operate as one institution with two names. Islamic fundamentalism Political Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal Islamic fundamentalism has been defined as a revivalist and reform movement of Muslims who aim to return to the founding scriptures of Islam . The term has been used interchangeably with similar terms such as Islamism , Islamic revivalism, Qutbism , Islamic activism, and has been criticized as pejorative. Some of

5576-459: The purpose of retaining the name of the state institution is so that the party institution has the option of using it where it may be legally or aesthetically appropriate. For example, one name can be used domestically and another used when dealing with institutions outside China. The arrangement can be achieved by either " adding a name " ( 加挂牌子 ; jiā guà páizi ) or " externally retaining a name " ( 对外保留牌子 ; duìwài bǎoliú páizi ). The arrangement

5658-426: The region's cotton in 1997. After 2008, as a result of improvements in farm mechanization, students were no longer compelled to pick the cotton crop. Starting in the 1980s, a stated task has been to prevent and break down "destructive activities of the three forces ", (separatism, religious extremism, and terrorism), in order to protect social stability and national unity. In 2012, XPCC generated 11.1 billion yuan from

5740-508: The second most-powerful person in Xinjiang after the CCP secretary. Additionally XPCC has a commander, usually a deputy-ministerial level official. Headquartered in Ürümqi , XPCC is subdivided into divisions , then regiments . Each XPCC division corresponds to a prefecture-level administrative division , and are in themselves of sub-prefectural rank. In addition to regiments, the XPCC also administers regiment-level farms and ranches. XPCC and each individual division are headed by three leaders:

5822-556: The sharia: the Armenians of Iran have remained Iranian citizens, are required to perform military service and pay the same taxes as Muslims, and have the right to vote (with separate electoral colleges). Similarly, the Afghan Jamaat, in its statutes, has declared it legal to employ non-Muslims as experts in the eyes of Islam. According to Roy distinctions between Fundamentalism and Islamism (or at least pre-1990 Islamism) are in

5904-508: The system of Islam, and become Islamic states . [REDACTED] Politics portal The term fundamentalism has been deemed misleading by those who suggest that all mainstream Muslims believe in the literal divine origin and perfection of the Quran and are therefore "fundamentalists", and others who believe it is a term that is used by outsiders in order to describe perceived trends within Islam. A professor of religious studies at Georgetown University , John L. Esposito , criticized

5986-404: The usage of the term "Islamic Fundamentalism" due to its ambiguous nature; asserting that the linguistic deployment of the term has been heavily influenced through Western-centric lens of Christian presuppositions. According to him, the more appropriate terms would be " Islamic revivalism " and " Islamic activism ", since the traditions of Tajdid (revival) and Islah (reform) are rooted within

6068-410: The use of the phrase. Surveying the doctrines of the new Islamic movements, Al-Azm found them to consist of "an immediate return to Islamic 'basics' and 'fundamentals'. ... It seems to me quite reasonable that calling these Islamic movements 'Fundamentalist' (and in the strong sense of the term) is adequate, accurate, and correct." Hassan Hanafi reached the same conclusion: "It is difficult to find

6150-502: The widespread usage and relevance of the term and calls Islamic fundamentalism "more than a religion today, it is a worldwide movement." He notes the intertwining of social, religious and political goals found within the movement and states that Islamic fundamentalism "deserves to be seriously studied and debated from a secular perspective as a revolutionary ideology." At least two Muslim academics, Syrian philosopher Sadiq Jalal al-Azm and Egyptian philosopher Hassan Hanafi , have defended

6232-537: Was abolished completely. Its powers were transferred to the government of Xinjiang and regional authorities. After the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, and the Islamic movements gained force, fears of Soviet encirclement and Islamic fundamentalism led to the re-establishment of the XPCC in 1981 as well as the cultivation of frontier lands and economic development. During the 1990s, XPCC began to contribute significantly to Xinjiang's economy, producing 40% of

6314-509: Was alleged to run many internment camps , as well as implementing the CCP's efforts to settle ethnic Han in the region. In December 2020, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection announced that XPCC-produced cotton and cotton products would be prohibited from import into the U.S. due to forced labor concerns. In June 2021, the United States Department of Commerce placed XPCC on the Bureau of Industry and Security 's Entity List . Following

6396-605: Was formed from soldiers from First Field Army , Kuomintang , and from the local Ili National Army . In October 1954 the Production Division was ordered by the Mao Zedong to form People's Liberation Army Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, tasked to "Integrate labor with violent, colonize and populate the frontier" in 1954. XPCC was founded by Wang Zhen . It initially comprised 175,000 military personnel, led by Tao Zhiyue as its first commander. XPCC

6478-594: Was initially focused on settling, cultivating, and developing sparsely populated areas, such as the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert and the Gurbantünggüt Desert , under the principle of "not competing for benefits with the local people". It provided a reserve military force , although they were not called upon. XPCC was expanded by youth from other parts of China, to equalize its sex ratio and include members with better education. In 1962, after

6560-470: Was marked by four phases. The first phase of proto-fundamentalism emerged during the late 19th century in wake of backlash against the Western colonial onslaught. Its main representatives were the ulema of Ahl-i Hadith movement in South Asia and religious revivalists of the Arab Salafiyya and various anti-colonial trends. The anti-colonial religious activists consisted of two factions:

6642-511: Was responsible for at least 450 killings in Nigeria. It was also reported that they had been responsible for over 620 deaths over the first 6 months of 2012. Since its founding in 2001, the jihadists have been responsible for between 3,000 and 10,000 deaths. The group became known internationally following sectarian violence in Nigeria in July 2009, which left over 1000 people dead. They do not have

6724-490: Was sanctioned by the United States in 2020, citing alleged human rights abuses. United States Commission on International Religious Freedom Commissioner Nury Turkel remarked, "Now, no business can claim ignorance of China's oppression of the Uyghur people. We hope the sanctions signal to other Chinese officials that there are costs associated with taking part in the Communist Party's repression of religion. The world

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