75-483: Birmingham Botanical Gardens may refer to: Birmingham Botanical Gardens, England - a 15-hectare botanical garden in Birmingham, England Birmingham Botanical Gardens, Alabama - a 27.3 hectare botanical garden in Birmingham, Alabama [REDACTED] Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles about distinct geographical locations with
150-549: A feminist movement developed. Parental authority was seen as important, but children were given legal protections against abuse and neglect for the first time towards the end of the period. Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State-funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly, and had become nearly universal by
225-599: A 15-acre (6-hectare) botanical garden situated in Edgbaston , Birmingham, England. The gardens are located 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 miles (2.4 km) south-west of Birmingham city centre at grid reference SP049854 . Designed in 1829, the gardens are Grade II* listed in Historic Englands's Register of Parks and Gardens , and retain many original features and layout, which was designed by the landscape gardener and horticulturalist John Claudius Loudon . The site
300-510: A children's playground. A museum is housed in the red-brick, Grade II listed Teulon Cottage, which was designed by Samuel Sanders Teulon . Near the west boundary is a rock garden, which was constructed in 1895 in memory of Sir Hugh Nettlefold, an important benefactor. Birmingham Botanical Gardens contain over 7,000 different plants from around the world. The gardens are home to The British National Bonsai Collection, which opened in 1993 and aims to provide both casual visitors and enthusiasts with
375-630: A comprehensive display of the variations of species and styles of bonsai . One of the oldest specimens is the "Omiya tree", a 250-year-old Juniperus chinensis in the informal upright style, presented to the collection in 1995 by the then city of Omiya , Japan. Each of the four glasshouses features a different variety of plants. The tropical glasshouse consists of essential crops, such as rice, cocoa, sugar cane and cotton, as well as ornamental and aquatic plants. The subtropical glasshouse features orchids, ferns and carnivorous plants, such as Venus flytraps. The Mediterranean glasshouse provides visitors with
450-604: A democracy. The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the nonconformists (part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the Liberal Party . This continued until the First World War . The Presbyterians played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland. Religion was politically controversial during this era, with Nonconformists pushing for the disestablishment of
525-475: A display of citrus trees and shrubs. The arid glasshouse consists of survivalist plants, such as cacti and aloe vera. There are many unusual and notable plants in the gardens including two fine Himalayan Cedars close to the fountain. These were raised from seeds given to the gardens in the 1840s by James Watt Junior , the son of James Watt whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to
600-455: A fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers, led to relative social stability. The Chartist movement for working-class men to be given the right to vote, which had been prominent in the early Victorian period, dissipated. Government involvement in the economy was limited. Only in the post-World War II period , around a century later, did the country experience substantial economic growth again. But whilst industry
675-464: A general principle of one vote per household. All these acts and others simplified the electoral system and reduced corruption. Historian Bruce L Kinzer describes these reforms as putting the United Kingdom on the path towards becoming a democracy. The traditional aristocratic ruling class attempted to maintain as much influence as possible while gradually allowing the middle- and working-classes
750-514: A high standard of personal conduct across all sections of society. The emphasis on morality gave impetus to social reform but also placed restrictions on certain groups' liberty. Prosperity rose during the period, but debilitating undernutrition persisted. Literacy and childhood education became near universal in Great Britain for the first time. Whilst some attempts were made to improve living conditions, slum housing and disease remained
825-445: A major employer and industry in their own right. Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century, with good manners and self-restraint becoming much more common. Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as Britain's major conflicts with France during the early 19th century, meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on
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#1732776661936900-430: A rise in prosecutions for illegal sodomy in the middle of the 19th century. Male sexuality became a favourite subject of medical researchers' study. For the first time, all male homosexual acts were outlawed. Concern about sexual exploitation of adolescent girls increased during the period, especially following the white slavery scandal , which contributed to the increasing of the age of consent from 13 to 16 . At
975-546: A role in economic life but exploitation of their labour became especially intense during the Victorian era. Children were put to work in a wide range of occupations, but particularly associated with this period are factories. Employing children had advantages, as they were cheap, had limited ability to resist harsh working conditions, and could enter spaces too small for adults. Some accounts exist of happy upbringings involving child labour, but conditions were generally poor. Pay
1050-517: A role in politics. However, all women and a large minority of men remained outside the system into the early 20th century. Cities were given greater political autonomy and the labour movement was legalised. From 1845 to 1852, the Potato Famine caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration. The Corn Laws were repealed in response to this. Across
1125-463: A severe problem. The period saw significant scientific and technological development. Britain was advanced in industry and engineering in particular, but somewhat undeveloped in art and education. Great Britain's population increased rapidly, while Ireland's fell sharply. In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , from her accession on 20 June 1837—after
1200-518: A substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room Hunger and poor diet was a common aspect of life across the UK in the Victorian period, especially in the 1840s, but the mass starvation seen in the Great Famine in Ireland was unique. Levels of poverty fell significantly during the 19th century from as much as two thirds of
1275-475: A symbol of the British Empire. Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. The Victorian era saw a rapidly growing middle class who became an important cultural influence, to a significant extent replacing the aristocracy as British society's dominant class. A distinctive middle-class lifestyle developed that influenced what society valued as a whole. Increased importance was placed on the value of
1350-687: A time when job options for women were limited and generally low-paying, some women, particularly those without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves. Attitudes in public life and among the general population to prostitution varied. Evidence about prostitutes' situation also varies. One contemporary study argues that the trade was a short-term stepping stone to a different lifestyle for many women, while another, more recent study argues they were subject to physical abuse, financial exploitation, state persecution, and difficult working conditions. Due to worries about venereal disease , especially among soldiers, women suspected of prostitution were for
1425-443: A wetlands enclosure that contains a variety of ornamental waterfowl. The terrace was the location for the gardens’ parrots, including a sulphur-crested cockatoo named Jenny that entertained visitors with her chatter, and Lionel, a blue macaw . In early 2024, the aviaries became vacant. Birmingham Botanical Gardens features a gift shop, plant sales centre, tea room, meeting and conference facilities, and five event suites, including
1500-461: A wide range of new inventions. This led Great Britain to become the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time. Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's 'Golden Years', with national income per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere. The positive economic conditions, as well as
1575-586: A £13m revamp was announced to restore its four glasshouses under the Growing Our Green Heritage after it was awared almost £600,000 from the National Lottery Hertiage Fund to develop the first phase of the project to due commence in 2025 and be completed in 2028, with a further £4.4m available as the programme progresses. In September 2024, proposals were submitted for the botanical gardens' restoration. Overall,
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#17327766619361650-461: Is notable for its range of glasshouses and gardens, which display a wide variety of plants and previously, birds. Birmingham Botanical Gardens is managed by Birmingham Botanical and Horticultural Society, a registered charity. The gardens are open daily to the public with paid admission. When Birmingham Botanical and Horticultural Society was formed in 1829, the intention was to develop a botanical garden. The chosen site for Birmingham Botanical Gardens
1725-456: Is now called classical music was somewhat undeveloped compared to parts of Europe but did have significant support. Photography became an increasingly accessible and popular part of everyday life. Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era. They became important to male identity. Examples included cricket , football , rugby , tennis and cycling . The idea of women participating in sport did not fit well with
1800-530: The Church of England . Nonconformists comprised about half of church attendees in England in 1851, and gradually the legal discrimination that had been established against them outside of Scotland was removed. Legal restrictions on Roman Catholics were also largely removed . The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to conversions and immigration from Ireland . Secularism and doubts about
1875-570: The Pax Britannica , was a time of relatively peaceful relations between the world's great powers . This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others. The only war in which the British Empire fought against another major power was the Crimean War , from 1853 to 1856. There were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British Empire, and Britain participated in wars against minor powers. It also took part in
1950-725: The history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire , the Victorian era was the reign of Queen Victoria , from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed the Georgian era and preceded the Edwardian era , and its later half overlaps with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe. Various liberalising political reforms took place in
2025-587: The 'workshop of the world', Britain was uniquely advanced in technology in the mid-19th century. Engineering, having developed into a profession in the 18th century, gained new profile and prestige in this period. The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone invented the first telegraph system . This system, which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages, quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards
2100-587: The 1880s, sanitation was inadequate in areas such as water supply and disposal of sewage. This all had a negative effect on health, especially that of the impoverished young. For instance, of the babies born in Liverpool in 1851, only 45 per cent survived to age 20. It had been hoped that there would be a rapid improvement following the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act 1846. This was the first legislation to empower local authorities in England and Wales to fund
2175-413: The 19th century and germ theory was developed for the first time. Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew. The overall number of deaths fell by about 20%. The life expectancy of women increased from around 42 to 55 and 40 to 56 for men. In spite of this, the mortality rate fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided
2250-550: The 19th century for the first time in history, improved nutrition, and a lower overall mortality rate. Ireland's population shrank significantly, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine. The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the French Revolution but was slow to reach Britain. William Whewell coined the term 'scientist' in 1833 to refer to those who studied what
2325-454: The Bible. A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period, including novels, women's magazines, children's literature, and newspapers. Much literature, including chapbooks , was distributed on the street. Music was also very popular, with genres such as folk music , broadsides , music halls , brass bands , theater music and choral music having mass appeal. What
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2400-614: The Botanical Gardens has changed very little since Loudon first designed it. In 1852, the Tropical House was built, to house the tropical water lily, Victoria amazonica . This was followed by the construction of the Subtropical House in 1871. In 1884, the present-day Terrace glasshouses replaced the original conservatory and lean-to houses. Birmingham Botanical Gardens has played a significant role in
2475-490: The British Empire, reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions and the end of transportation of convicts to Australia . Restrictions on colonial trade were loosened and responsible (i.e. semi-autonomous) government was introduced in some territories. Throughout most of the 19th century Britain was the most powerful country in the world. The period from 1815 to 1914 , known as
2550-573: The Loudon, Garden and Terrace Suites. There are two playground areas for children, a traditional playground with swings and slide and a children's discovery garden where children can learn about plants through interactive play. The gardens serve schools, colleges, nurseries and youth groups in the West Midlands and beyond with outdoor educational visits. The education programme includes cross-curricular teaching sessions. Schools are able to use
2625-526: The Main Lawn, with its range of beds and shrubberies around the perimeter. The Aviary, now vacant, is located on the south-east side of the lawn, which comprises four domed iron flight cages. A sunken Rose Garden can be located on the north side of the Aviary. A 19th Century Grade II listed, octagonal iron bandstand , designed by F.B. Osborn, is situated on the west side of the lawn. At the north-west corner of
2700-553: The Origin of Species (1859), which sought to explain biological evolution by natural selection, gained a high profile in the public consciousness. Simplified (and at times inaccurate) popular science was increasingly distributed through a variety of publications which caused tension with the professionals. There were significant advances in various fields of research, including statistics , elasticity , refrigeration , natural history , electromagnetism , and logic . Known as
2775-454: The UK, including expanding the electoral franchise. The Great Famine caused mass death in Ireland early in the period. The British Empire had relatively peaceful relations with the other great powers . It participated in various military conflicts mainly against minor powers. The British Empire expanded during this period and was the predominant power in the world. Victorian society valued
2850-638: The Victorian view of femininity, but their involvement did increase as the period progressed. For the middle classes, many leisure activities such as table games could be done in the home while domestic holidays to rural locations such as the Lake District and Scottish Highlands were increasingly practical. The working classes had their own culture separate from that of their richer counterparts, various cheaper forms of entertainment and recreational activities provided by philanthropy . Trips to resorts such as Blackpool were increasingly popular towards
2925-451: The West." The rapid growth in the urban population included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as Edinburgh and London. Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants. Overcrowding was a major problem with seven or eight people frequently sleeping in a single room. Until at least
3000-504: The accuracy of the Old Testament grew among people with higher levels of education. Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal) gained appeal among academics in the south. Historians refer to a 'Victorian Crisis of Faith', a period when religious views had to readjust to accommodate new scientific knowledge and criticism of
3075-411: The basis for welfare provision into the 20th century. While many people were prone to vices, not least alcoholism, historian Bernard A. Cook argues that the main reason for 19th century poverty was that typical wages for much of the population were simply too low. Barely enough to provide a subsistence living in good times, let alone save up for bad. Improvements were made over time to housing along with
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3150-466: The building of public baths and wash houses but, since the act was only permissive rather than mandatory, improvement was slow. Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. Kellow Chesney wrote of the situation: Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up
3225-539: The changes brought by the Industrial Revolution . A plant found nowhere else is the fern Dicksonia × lathamii which is a hybrid between Dicksonia antarctica and Dicksonia arborescens , raised by ex-Curator W. B. Latham more than one hundred years ago. The gardens were home to a small collection of exotic birds from around the world including white-cheeked turaco , Himalayan monals , azure-winged magpies and Quaker parakeets . The majority of
3300-479: The character of Birmingham Botanical Gardens is that of a Victorian public park set in 15 acres (6.1 ha) of landscaped greenery. The gardens feature four glasshouses, which are tropical, subtropical, Mediterranean and arid glasshouses. There is also an Alpine House and Butterfly House. Running along the south range of glasshouses is the terrace, also known as the Loudon Terrace, which provides views of
3375-489: The children in school; in 1840 only about 20 per cent of the children in London had any schooling. By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including Sunday school ). From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education, though this was often difficult to achieve. Only in the 1870s and 1880s did children begin to be compelled into school. Work continued to inhibit children's schooling into
3450-454: The death of her uncle, William IV —until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII . Her reign lasted 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era. The era can also be understood in a more extensive sense—the 'long Victorian era'—as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from
3525-797: The diplomatic struggles of the Great Game and the Scramble for Africa . In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha . The couple had nine children, who themselves married into various royal families, and the queen thus became known as the 'grandmother of Europe'. In 1861, Albert died. Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years. In 1871, with republican sentiments growing in Britain, she began to return to public life. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became
3600-403: The dissemination of Loudon's ideas in terms of planting and garden layout within the Birmingham area. Between 1833 and 1927, the gardens hosted annual exhibitions of exotic plants, fruits and flowers, which raised local horticultural expertise. In 1910 a zoological collection was introduced with the aim of increasing society membership and this included bears, monkeys, seals and alligators. Although
3675-474: The early 20th century. 19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution. In the 1901 census , more than three out of every four people were classified as living in an urban area, compared to one in five a century earlier. Historian Richard A. Soloway wrote that "Great Britain had become the most urbanized country in
3750-424: The end of period. Initially the industrial revolution increased working hours, but over the course of the 19th century a variety of political and economic changes caused them to fall back down to and in some cases below pre-industrial levels, creating more time for leisure. Before the Industrial Revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with
3825-453: The end of the century. Private education for wealthier children, boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century. The growing middle class and strong evangelical movement placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour. This included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits, child discipline and self-criticism. As well as personal improvement, importance
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#17327766619363900-470: The end of the century. In 1876, an American patented the telephone . A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city. Guglielmo Marconi developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period. The railways were important economically in the Victorian era, allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around, stimulating trade and industry. They were also
3975-516: The family, and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity. A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace, which had often not been the case before. The home was seen as a private environment, where housewives provided their husbands with a respite from the troubles of the outside world. Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and to rely on men as breadwinners. Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life, and
4050-614: The gardens' birds were located in the white-domed aviary building that provided a focal point on the main lawn. The aviary consisted of four distinct sections, three of which represented Asia, Africa and the Americas. The Asian section housed colourful tragopans , the African section was home to different varieties of lovebirds , and the American section housed Quaker parakeets . The fourth section consisted of soft-billed birds, such as starlings and Mynah birds . The gardens also feature
4125-816: The gardens. To the north east lie the Pinetum, Winter Gardens, the West Lawn and the Herbaceous Border. To the south-east is a rock garden and pool, dating to 1895, Rhododendron Walk and the Ernest 'China' Wilson Border. At the southernmost section of the gardens are the Azalea Walk, Fern Walk and Woodland Glade laid out 1862. On the west side of the path looping around the Rhododendron Walk is a Conservation Garden created in 1991. South of this, in
4200-438: The label 'Victorian', though there have also been defences of it. Michael Sadleir was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one". He distinguished early Victorianism—the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850 —and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of aestheticism and imperialism , from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw
4275-525: The latter period as characterised by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic prudery , and complacency —what G. M. Trevelyan called the 'mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity'. The Reform Act , which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832. The franchise was expanded again by the Second Reform Act in 1867. The Third Reform Act in 1884 introduced
4350-402: The lawn stands an octagonal, pierced-work, cast-iron gazebo, which dates to c. 1850 and was moved to the gardens in the mid 1990s. A Coade stone fountain lies west of the bandstand, which was presented in 1850 and was designed by the Birmingham architect, Charles Edge . From the west side of the Main Lawn, a network of paths wind north and south, giving access to the other main features around
4425-449: The main conservatory was rejected as too expensive, so it was eventually designed by a local manufacturer. It took three years to plan and construct the site, before it was opened to members of the society on 11 June 1832. Further development and planting continued throughout the decade. Due to rising expenditure, the southern part of the gardens was given up in 1844 and would eventually be used as Westbourne Road Leisure Gardens. The layout of
4500-420: The management of sewage and water eventually giving the UK the most advanced system of public health protection anywhere in the world. The quality and safety of household lighting improved over the period with oil lamps becoming the norm in the early 1860s, gas lighting in the 1890s and electric lights beginning to appear in the homes of the richest by the end of the period. Medicine advanced rapidly during
4575-444: The middle of the 19th century to 'diminished cruelty to animals, criminals, lunatics, and children (in that order)'. Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals. Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers in the 1830s and 1840s. Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection. Use of the death penalty also decreased. Crime rates fell significantly in
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#17327766619364650-457: The periods adjacent to it, in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the Reform Act 1832 , which introduced a wide-ranging change to the electoral system of England and Wales . Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of
4725-514: The population in 1800 to less than a third by 1901. However, 1890s studies suggested that almost 10% of the urban population lived in a state of desperation lacking the food necessary to maintain basic physical functions. Attitudes towards the poor were often unsympathetic and they were frequently blamed for their situation. In that spirit, the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 had been deliberately designed to punish them and would remain
4800-462: The purpose-built education building called the Study Centre. The Centre also hosts a variety of leisure courses for adults, including photography, nature and heritage courses. There is an all-year events programme at the gardens that includes activity sessions for youngsters, garden tours, family activities, photography and art classes, theatre, music and falconry. Victorian era In
4875-535: The same name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_Botanical_Gardens&oldid=1204679412 " Category : Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Birmingham Botanical Gardens, England The Birmingham Botanical Gardens are
4950-405: The second half of the 19th century. Sociologist Christie Davies linked this change to attempts to morally educate the population, especially at Sunday schools . Contrary to popular belief, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed copulation . Chastity was expected of women, whilst attitudes to male sexual behaviour were more relaxed. The development of police forces led to
5025-591: The southern corner of the gardens, is the Nursery. At the north-west corner of the gardens, is the Curator's Lodge, built in the 1960s. In 1999, this was extended to become a study centre. South of this, against the east boundary of the gardens, is a series of three period gardens (Roman, Medieval and Tudor), which were created in 1994. Next to the Roman Garden to the south is a waterfowl pool and further south lies
5100-402: The spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem. The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century. Various factors are considered contributary to this, including a rising fertility rate (though it was falling by the end of the period), the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during
5175-402: The war effort, and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement. There is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society. For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples cohabited before marriage. Historian Harold Perkin argued that the change in moral standards led by
5250-412: The zoological collection was later abandoned, the gardens' collection of birds remained a feature until early 2024. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s a £1.8 million refurbishment of the gardens took place, which involved the introduction of several new buildings and the restoration of the glasshouses. An aviary was constructed in 1995, and housed a variety of birds in four different flights. On 10 July 2023,
5325-478: Was an 18-acre area of the Calthorpe estate, named Holly Bank Farm. The gardens were designed in 1829 by John Claudius Loudon , a leading garden planner, horticultural journalist and publisher. The aim was to combine a scientific and ornamental garden and arboretum that would include a nursery and market garden for selling plants, fruits and vegetables to help with the gardens' maintenance costs. Loudon's design for
5400-485: Was generally then known as natural philosophy, but it took a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the Royal Society admitted only professionals from 1847 onwards. The British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living as a scientist alone. Scientific knowledge and debates such as that about Charles Darwin 's On
5475-448: Was given to social reform. Utilitarianism was another philosophy that saw itself as based on science rather than on morality, but also emphasised social progress. An alliance formed between these two ideological strands. The reformers emphasised causes such as improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality, and political reform in order to establish
5550-401: Was low, punishments severe, work was dangerous and disrupted children's development (often leaving them too tired to play even in their free time). Early labour could do lifelong harm; even in the 1960s and '70s, the elderly people of industrial towns were noted for their often unusually short stature, deformed physiques, and diseases associated with unhealthy working conditions. Reformers wanted
5625-432: Was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre. Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century: real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 per cent higher in 1901 compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831 to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million. Children had always played
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