76-423: The Bugis people are the most numerous of the three major ethnic groups of South Sulawesi , Indonesia , with about 3 million people. Most Bugis are Muslim , but many pre-Islamic rites continue to be honoured in their culture, including the view that gender exists on a spectrum. Most Bugis converted from Animism to Islam in the early 17th century; small numbers of Bugis have converted to Christianity , but
152-520: A Portuguese officer and daughter of La Putebulu from Suppa was exposed as they married secretly in Malacca, which would result in the birth of Manuel Godinho de Erédia . The Portuguese vessel had to rapidly left Sulawesi to avoid severe violence and they did not dared to travel back to the island until 1559. One member of the voyage, Manuel Pinto, decided to remain in South Sulawesi, he recorded
228-666: A cultural belief that all five genders must coexist harmoniously; but by 2019 the numbers of bissu had declined dramatically, after years of increasing persecution and the tradition of revering bissu as traditional community priests. Bissu have mostly survived by participating in weddings as maids of honour and working as farmers as well as performing their cultural roles as priests. Hardline Islamic groups, police and politicians have all played their part in Indonesia's increased harassment and discrimination of nonheterosexuals. The state of bissu tolerance during Dutch colonial rule
304-647: A greater autonomy in contrast to a nearby kingdom like Bone, which would likely dominate them. The war concluded in 1565 and a peace negotiation followed afterwards. The two states agreed in the Tengka River as their respective spheres of influence under the Treaty of Caleppa. The citizens of Bone and Gowa were also awarded equal rights in each other's jurisdiction. The ambitions for dominance continued in South Sulawesi. Between 1570 and 1591, several military operations were conducted by Gowa, in which oftentimes with
380-635: A proselytization mission facilitated by Sultan of Johor. After their new attempts to introduce the Islamic teaching once more met with opposition, they left for Luwu . This was because Luwu was the spiritual center of South Sulawesi and its indigenous belief of Dewata SewwaE had some similarities with Islam. They successfully converted the Pattiarase, Datu of Luwu and in February 1605 he took the name of Sultan Muhammad. The group then revisited Makassar and
456-510: A radical change throughout the political landscape of lowland South Sulawesi Peninsula . The trade in South Sulawesi was based on the export of rare commodities, a business which was easily dominated by an exclusive ruling class . The administrative structure is fairly basic, a majority of the states are small and in a form of a local chiefdom. A small population is sufficient to assist the elite with food, physical work and military assistance to preserve their state's independence. However, by
532-452: A simple clothing. The women potentially wore a skirt ; while for the men, a loincloth and possibly a headcloth. Remains of bronze and gold ornaments have also been retrieved based on archeological evidence. Pottery is evident, although bamboo containers were more extensively used together with the usage of bamboo knives. The weapons were sourced from iron and stones together with helmets and shields made from rattan . Theologically,
608-548: A sparsely populated communities, they were not living in an absolute isolation with the outside world. Instead, trade and commerce were held high and regarded to be of pivotal importance in the society. The archeological findings near Bantaeng and Ara unearthed ancient artifacts dating from 300 to 100 BC, denoting evidence that the southern part of Sulawesi has played an integral role in the axis of early insulindian trade . There are also traces of imported Chinese and other continental Southeast Asian ceramics and stoneware found in
684-501: Is a corresponding drop in the amount of respect afforded to the calabai in comparison. The calalai are assigned female at birth but take on the roles of heterosexual men. They present themselves as men, hold masculine jobs and typically live with female partners to adopt children. Although they typically dress masculinely, many calalai include distinct indicators of a unique calalai identity in their style and do not dress entirely like oroané , such as by wearing an earring only in
760-729: Is an exonym which represents an older form of the name; (To) Ugi is the endonym . The earliest inhabitant of South Sulawesi is potentially related to the Wajak Man , of the Proto-Australoid origin. There are a few flake materials found in Walanae River valley and Maros , likely dating between 40,000 and 19,000 BC. The hunter-gatherer culture in South Sulawesi is also known as Toalean culture , and largely based on blade, flake and microlith complex. They are probably of Melanesoid or Australoid stock, hence related to
836-402: Is likely that despite being benefited with the trade relationship, they would resist external assimilation . Thus, outside elements are almost absent in the development of native religion and the indigenous states. The intensity on the early insulindian trade has led to a gradual shift in terms of the economic development, social construct, political interest and the balance of power amongst
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#1732790955550912-580: Is not inherently contradictory to their calabai identity. However, the high cost and low accessibility of such surgeries cannot be overlooked as a major barrier either. Much of Indonesian society emphasizes the importance of the nuclear family (in Indonesian, azas kekeluargaan ) and heteronormativity , and calabai often conform to this basis by taking on the roles of wives in a nuclear family. To this end, some calabai will undergo unofficial marriages (known as kahwin di bawah tangan , or marriage below
988-516: Is to be a wedding in Bugis society, more often than not calabai will be involved in the organization. When a wedding date has been agreed upon, the family will approach a calabai and negotiate a wedding plan. The calabai will be responsible for many things: setting up and decorating the tent, arranging the bridal chairs, bridal gown, costumes for the groom and the entire wedding party (numbering up to twenty-five), makeup for all those involved, and all
1064-415: Is waning due to the decreasing number of people taking the role. They are expected to remain celibate and wear conservative clothes. In practice, many bissu do partake in sexual activities (especially with oroané ) but this is not widely acknowledged and public recognition is seen as delegitimizing to the bissu's spiritual power. In pre-Islamic Bugis culture, bissu were seen as intermediaries between
1140-560: The Indonesian population , are influential in the politics in the country; and historically influential on the Malay Peninsula , Sumatra , Borneo , Lesser Sunda Islands and other parts of the archipelago where they have migrated en masse, starting in the late seventeenth century. The third president of Indonesia, B. J. Habibie , and a former vice president of Indonesia, Jusuf Kalla , are Bugis descent. In Malaysia ,
1216-604: The bissu and the calabai because many are disincentivized from identifying as calalai . There is generally a higher level of discrimination towards people assigned female at birth who forego becoming mothers and wives, and they are often stereotyped as lazy. Much of their work is also out of public view, such as in agriculture, compared to calabai who are often seen working as cooks, hairdressers and wedding planners, and these contrasts may contribute to this stereotype. Bugis The Bugis people , also known as Buginese , are an Austronesian ethnic group—the most numerous of
1292-509: The bissu are spiritually distinct from non-binary and intersex people in general, this distinction is becoming increasingly blurred. Many bissu are now engaging in occupations which are associated more closely with waria roles, such as in bridal makeup. Even in Bugis society, the role of the bissu have recently been conflated with those of the calalai and calabai . Due to the decline in bissu , some rituals have begun to substitute calalai and calabai in their place. According to
1368-419: The bissu category, there are also several subcategories with differing roles, as described in poems such as La Galigo . One consists of those directly descended from the gods and tightly connected to the courts and nobles. The second consists of landowning bissu who are absent from spiritual roles. The last category consists of bissu whose main roles are in facilitating religious rites. Bugis society has
1444-418: The calabai , calalai , and bissu as third genders is disputed. These roles can also be seen as fundamental occupational and spiritual callings, which are not as directly involved in designations such as male and female. In daily social life, the bissu , the calabai , and the calalai may enter the dwelling places and the villages of both men and women. The bissu are one of the five genders of
1520-444: The consumption of pork ; other behaviors including consuming alcohol and opium, offerings to sacred places, worshipping at regalia, lending money with interest ( Riba ) and gambling were also condemned. As Islamization was slowly taking root among the society in the peninsula, mosques were built in each of the states and domains. Thus, appointments were made for the newly established positions of qadi , imam and khatib throughout
1596-585: The status as a bastion for Islamic faith. However, as far as the mid 16th century, South Sulawesi persist to be one of the few remaining significant domains in the regional native trading network where Islam has yet to take hold. While early contacts with Islam had been made since 1490 with the trading relationship between Siang and Malacca, most Bugis were still believer of the native patturioloang religion. In year 1540, two aristocrats from Makassar were baptized in Ternate . They later embarked on another visit
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#17327909555501672-509: The 15th century, a major economic revolution taken place, and agricultural become an important economic foundation. To continue their powers in the agrarian-based society , the ruling elites are now required to handle the near unprecedented growth on the rice -producing territories to accommodate a major population boom . Hence, in order adapt with the economic and societal change, a new system and intermediaries are needed. Trade and commerce however, still retains its essential importance for
1748-401: The 16th century, the Bugis life is noted by a burgeoning tolerance towards foreign influences , overseas products were no longer limited to the ruling class, but also among the commoners as well. The method of home construction, remains the same. Sketches from few western sources in the first half of 17th century illustrates tall and strong wooded home raised on piles. Nonetheless, inside of
1824-685: The Bugis and Bajo were amongst the people who arrived in Melaka to trade, although they are small in numbers. Conversely, the Muslim-Malay traders from Patani , Pahang , and Ujung Tanah in the Malay Peninsula ; as well as from Champa in Indochina ; and Minangkabau in Sumatra settled throughout the port cities in the western coast, including Suppa’, Pancana-Tanete, Siang, Tallo, Sanrabone and Gowa. Due to this extensive bilateral connection,
1900-488: The Bugis gender system, calabai are generally assigned male at birth but take on the role of heterosexual women. Their fashions and gender expression are distinctly feminine but do not directly match those of "typical" heterosexual women. Especially in the modern era, calabai fashion has also been influenced by styles outside of traditional Bugis culture, such as from Islamic and Christian sources. Customary calabai roles include wedding planning and hairdressing. If there
1976-554: The Bugis-Makassar lands. Despite being devout Muslims, the process did not serve as a hindrance towards the Makassarese Muslim King of Gowa to maintain a friendly relationship with Portuguese and Christianity. Despite so, the Bugis and Makassarese realms became Muslim and were now prevented to convert to Christianity by the local ruler. Maid of honour Too Many Requests If you report this error to
2052-406: The Bugis. There are divergent theories regarding their definitive origins. For one to be considered bissu , all aspects of gender must be combined to form a whole. It is believed that you are born with the propensity to become a bissu , revealed in a baby whose genitalia are ambiguous. These ambiguous genitalia need not be visible; a normative male who becomes a bissu is believed to be female on
2128-547: The Makassarese. Both kingdoms are pursuing dominance in the entirety of the Peninsula together with the important trade routes. Thus, the two growing kingdoms are bound for a major collision course and a war finally broke out in 1562. Gowa was assisted by Luwu; and also by Wajo and Soppeng, the latter two would probably preferred in favour of a distant sovereign like Luwu or Gowa, as they would furnish Wajo and Soppeng with
2204-576: The Malay-Muslim community of Macassar were awarded special privileges by the ruler of Gowa according to Lontarak Patturiolonga . However, in 1575, during the visit by Abdul Makmur (Dato' ri Bandang), one of the Minangkabau proselytizers of Islam, he noted that there are several difficulties to convert the locals — the superfluous liking towards dried boar flesh , raw deer liver diced with blood (lawa) and palm liquor. He then embarked to promulgate
2280-645: The Portuguese did not consider Bugis as their prime concern. Not until 1584 did the Portuguese send four Franciscans fathers to the area, and their stay was a short one. Also not known were the fates of the four Bugis men sent for education in Indian Goa . Subsequently, no new attempts to baptized Sulawesi were taken after the period, nor Portuguese military support against invasion by King of Gowa-Tallo, Karaeng Lakiyung Tunipalangga, which annexed and vassalized Siang alongside other Ajatappareng states. During
2356-437: The South Sulawesi economy. Rice become a major source of export; and at the same time, the economy is stimulated by the import of prestige goods from other parts of archipelago. The area potentially experienced exceptional growth following the rise of Malacca as a regional entrepôt . Conversely, the wealth for the elite families in South Sulawesi would also consequently rose due to this intensive commercial transactions, despite
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2432-402: The South Sulawesi people, which has fundamentally led to the Bugis states, dynasties and polities began to flourish. The progress of inter-insular commercial activities and the increasing interactions with Maritime Silk Road were potentially among the main factors contributing to the economic prosperity for a few leading South Sulawesi communities. The period between 1200 and 1600 witnessed
2508-600: The Walannae Depression in the south-west peninsula of Sulawesi. It was here that the ancestors of the present-day Bugis settled, probably in the mid- to late second millennium B.C. The area is rich in fish and wildlife and the annual fluctuation of Lake Tempe (a reservoir lake for the Bila and Walannae rivers) allows speculative planting of wet rice, while the hills can be farmed by swidden or shifting cultivation , wet rice, hunting and gathering. Around A.D. 1200,
2584-476: The adoption of few Portuguese games notably dice , card game and marbles. The Portuguese and Spaniards also introduced new food and produce in the local diet, mainly from the New World crops : sweet potato and tobacco , and also other important items — manioc , maize and chilies . During the period, the women don under a baggy trousers and pants; the usage of short tunics and sleeves were also noted by
2660-486: The ancient Bugis kingdoms were incorporated into the new republic and the roles of bissu became increasingly sidelined due to their connection with Bugis royalty. Although bissu traditions were able to exist side-by-side with Islamic ideals for much of pre-independence history, a regional Islamic rebellion in South Sulawesi led to increased persecution (part of the Darul Islam rebellion known as Operasi Tobat ). As
2736-557: The atmosphere became increasingly hostile to nonheterosexuals, fewer people were willing to take on the role of bissu . With the rise of Suharto's New Order administration, the bissu were further marginalized as deviant and un-Islamic elements of Indonesian society. The bissu were also targeted during the New Order era because of their purported association with the Communist Party of Indonesia . This persecution included
2812-516: The availability of prestigious imported goods including Chinese and South-East Asian ceramics and Gujarati print-block textiles, coupled with newly discovered sources of iron ore in Luwu stimulated an agrarian revolution which expanded from the great lakes region into the lowland plains to the east, south and west of the Walennae depression. This led over the next four hundred years to the development of
2888-441: The banning of bissu practices, the destruction of spiritually significant objects, the forced assimilation of bissu to male roles, and the execution of many bissu individuals. In the post-Suharto era, there have been attempts at revitalizing traditional bissu practices, with many elements of bissu custom merging with those of Islamic tradition. Bissu can be found providing Hajj blessings to pilgrims and even partaking in
2964-607: The contemporary population of New Guinea or to Australian aborigines . In 2015, the remains of Bessé´ , a young woman was unearthed Leang Panninge, South Sulawesi. Dated over 7,200 years old, half of her DNA was identified to be connected to the indigenous Australians, the people in New Guinea and the Western Pacific; together with a previously unknown and unique human lineage that diverged approximately 37,000 years ago. Her DNA provided important evidence pertaining to
3040-538: The domain of Soppeng had slowly grown into prominence and slowly seemed to be resistant to accept Luwu's dominance in the area. In cooperation with a few Bugis kingdoms in the western coast — Sawitto', Alitta, Suppa' and Bacukiki'; as well as Rappang in the interior, they formed a loose confederation known as Aja'tappareng ('the lands west of the lake'). Conversely, the neighbouring Bugis territory of Wajo also possessed an aspiration for an autonomy against Luwu, and it too started to extend their influence and dominance in
3116-411: The early Bugis potentially practiced ancestor worshipping . There were also ancient rituals related to agriculture and fertility. They generally buried their corpses, although there were several cases where the deceased body were being disposed by immersion in the sea or lakes, or positioned in trees. Other mortuary practices includes cremation , especially for the rulers. Despite being located in
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3192-562: The exception of Toraja highlands) have accepted Islam. Bone, subsequently would continue to Islamize its two vassal states located in the edge of the Torajan realm — namely Enrekang and Duri. The Islamisation in most of South Sulawesi have provided a platform for a faith and ideological revolution. Islamic laws and principles were observed and absorbed into the Makassar, Bugis and Mandar cultures. Dato' ri Bandang directed first towards
3268-432: The fact that trade is now not solely regarded as their single source of riches. In the 1500s, Luwu was the major political force in the Bugis heartland, with its authority proclaimed throughout a large section of the peninsula. Nevertheless, new geopolitical players that would resist its dominance were already beginning to take shape by the end of the century. The impact following the rise of Malacca were more visible in
3344-510: The following year and bought many of the region's previous materials, including gold, sandalwood and iron weapons. Antonio de Paiva, a Portuguese trader, made multiple voyages between Sulawesi and Malacca from 1542, potentially intrigued by the potential riches of the region. During his expedition to the Bugis states of Suppa' and Siang, he was involved in a theological discussion and was requested to baptize La Putebulu, Datu of Suppa' and his family, followed by king of Siang in 1544. The baptism
3420-519: The food. Rarely did I attend a village wedding with less than a thousand guests. On the day, some calabai remain in the kitchen preparing food while others form part of the reception, showing guests to their seats. Calabai embrace their femininity and live as women, but generally do not think of themselves as female, nor wish to be female or feel trapped in a male's body. Large-scale feminization surgeries are not often performed because although many calabai desire more feminine features, male genitalia
3496-462: The foundation of Sharia principles on the land, having emphasis on the importance of religious service at the circumcision ceremony , marriage and funerals . However, with the exception of funeral rites which were absolutely Islamized; other rites of passage based on the Islamic understanding were simply incorporated with the existing traditional practices, norms and customs. As for prohibition, there are also strong enforcement against adultery and
3572-577: The free married women. For the affluent male, there were potentially also a favour towards western shirts and hats; and sometimes being paired together with a plume , and a jacket . The slave class and the male commoners however, would usually go topless . The aftershocks following the Fall of Malacca were potentially being strongly felt in South Sulawesi. As noted from Tomé Pires in Suma Oriental, few traders from ‘The Macassar Islands’, including
3648-409: The hand). The calabai identity is seen as unavoidable, permanent, and given by God. Although this view has aided in the general tolerance of calabai in many parts of modern Bugis society, in some cases it also promotes the exclusion of calabai due to implications of pity and lack of individual agency. Additionally, they lack much of the spiritual significance associated with the bissu , and there
3724-575: The increasing peril imposed by the neighboring Makassarese states of Gowa-Tallo. Further baptism continued in 1545 by a priest, Father Vicente Viegas, which was involved the Christianization of Bugis rulers in Alitta and Bacukiki', according to Manuel Godinho de Erédia , kings of Sawitto and Sidenreng also participated, all were allies of Suppa' part of Ajatappareng alliance . Relations with Portuguese were still good, until an elopement between
3800-814: The influence of Islam is still very prominent in their society. In contrast to the gender binary , Bugis society recognizes five genders : makkunrai , oroané , bissu , calabai , and calalai . The concept of five genders has been a key part of their culture for at least six centuries, according to anthropologist Sharyn Graham Davies, citing similar traditions in Thailand , Malaysia , India and Bangladesh . Oroané are loosely comparable to cisgender men , makkunrai to cisgender women , calalai to transgender men , and calabai to transgender women , while bissu are loosely comparable to androgynous or intersex people and are revered shamans or community priests . The classification of
3876-433: The inside. This combination of sexes enables a 'meta-gender' identity to emerge. However, ambiguous genitalia alone do not confer the state of being a bissu . The person must also learn the language, songs and incantations, and have a gift for bestowing blessings in order to become bissu . To be considered a "true" bissu , an individual needs to undergo initiation rituals and mentorship from another bissu , but this practice
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#17327909555503952-449: The interior of the present-day Bugis heartland, they become increasingly diverged from their neighbouring Makassarese , Mandarese and Torajan brethren; simultaneously, the proto-Bugis too would assimilated the former Austronesian tribes in the sparsely-populated area, a process whereby the native populations would gradually adopt the language of the new arrivals. Hence, a redesigned hybrid-identity through ethnogenesis emerged, binding
4028-695: The major kingdoms of South Sulawesi, and the social transformation of chiefly societies into hierarchical proto-states. The lifestyle of ancient Bugis people were, to some extent, preserved by the pagan Torajan people until the dawn of the 20th century. Their homes were mainly constructed on stilts and the communities were likely to be scattered along the river banks, sea or lake shores. The main undertakings during this period were farming rice , millet , adlay and other edible crops, catching fish and shellfish, obtaining forest produce and hunting wild animals. Buffaloes were imported and used for important occasions. The earliest inhabitants potentially clad under
4104-483: The more wealthy homes, some foreign furnitures, namely tables and chairs began to emerge, and basic wall opening sometimes become real windows with shutters . The Bugis names for these objects signaled their Portuguese connection , Jandela (window) deriving from Janela , Kadera (chairs) from Cadeira ; and Mejang (table) from Mesa . A gradual change is also noted in the household tools and utensils, including glasses and Iberian-style jugs and trays. There were also
4180-427: The original elements derived from the indigenous people together with the introduction of revolutionary techniques, items and ideas bought by the new settlers, including weaving , metal arts and theological doctrine. The society however, remains largely divided between two separate classes, the prevailing nobility and the common people. The homeland of the Bugis is the area around Lake Tempe and Lake Sidenreng in
4256-419: The paternal ancestors of the Bugis is also supported by studies of Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups . Christian Pelras, an anthropologist , hypothesized that the proto-Bugis were potentially arrived from abroad, possibly from Borneo , to the western seaboard of South Sulawesi. Their arrival was largely drawn to control the mineral and natural resources in the hinterland. As the group began to spread towards
4332-475: The people and the gods, according to Indonesian anthropologist professor Halilintar Lathief. The bissu are closely associated with the female yet androgynous moon goddess, as her spiritual offspring. Up until the 1940s, the bissu were still central to keeping ancient palace rites alive, including coronations of kings and queens. Historically, bissu have played an important role in other ceremonies as well, particularly in weddings and childbirth events. Within
4408-687: The people of South Sulawesi were generally well aware on the political-religious changes taken place in the western half of the archipelago. It can be inferred that following the Conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese Conquistadors , the trading links intensified between South Sulawesi to other commercial powerhouse: namely Johor and Patani in the peninsula , Acheh in Sumatra , Banjarmasin in Borneo and Demak in Java — all having
4484-487: The pilgrimage themselves. However, this revitalization has also caused bissu customs to be viewed as an attraction for tourists, which reduces their tradition to entertainment purposes and disregards the spiritual background on which the practices are based. Bissu also experience greater societal acceptance and respect when they are seen to be actively fulfilling their spiritual roles, but stricter male/female roles are often expected of them instead when they are not. Although
4560-580: The political development and involved in discussions with several Bugis-Makassar rulers in the region before returning to Malacca (via Java). However Datu of Suppa and its population alongside other Ajatappareng states remain largely Christians according to Manuel Godinho de Erédia . Following the restoration of economic relations with the Portuguese Malacca in 1559, there were repeated requests made from South Sulawesi primarily Ajatappareng states for priests, however not many were available and
4636-484: The pre-Islamic cemeteries. However, in contrast to much of Southeast Asia, the indicators of Hindu and Buddhist materials are rather sparse in South Sulawesi cultures. Their writing system , and some of their names and words, along with few Buddhist bronze images found in Mandar and Bantaeng only suggest that the existence of trade relations made with the western archipelago and the presence of foreigners alike. It
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#17327909555504712-540: The reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia), Sultan Ibrahim and eighth prime minister , Muhyiddin Yassin , have Bugis ancestry. Most Bugis people speak a distinct regional language called Bugis ( Basa Ugi ) in addition to Indonesian . The Bugis language belongs to the South Sulawesi language group ; other members include Makassarese , Torajan , Mandarese and Massenrempulu . The name Bugis
4788-463: The resumption of Portuguese-South Sulawesi relations in 1559, the political dynamic of the region have effectively morphed. The Makassarese state of Gowa had exerted his influence towards the north, and absorbed many Bugis states that have had a friendly relations towards the Portuguese. Simultaneously, the Kingdom of Bone also commenced its southward expansion, and soon come into a direct contact with
4864-446: The right ear (compared to the left ear for oroané and both ears for makkunrai ). The calalai are often expected to exhibit a mixture of feminine and masculine virtues, such as devotion and bravery, respectively. Similarly, calalai can perform both masculine and feminine behaviors, and there is a certain degree of fluidity in this expression depending on the occasion. There is a considerably small number of calalai even compared to
4940-560: The support of Luwu. Although a distant power, Gowa tend to be rather hard towards its Bugis vassals of Wajo and Soppeng, this made these two states become inclined to the invitation by Bone to restore their autonomy . In 1590, the three kingdoms (Wajo, Soppeng and Bone) entered an alliance known as Tellumpocco'e , 'the Three Summits' or 'the Big Three'. In 1590, Daeng Mammeta embarked on another campaign to annihilate Wajo, but he
5016-727: The surrounding areas. By 1490, they entered an agreement with Luwu, and in the agreement they would no longer be considered as "its servant" but as a "Luwu's child". By 1498, the Wajorse enthroned Arung Matoa Puang ri Ma'galatung as their ruler, he would later turn the domain as one of the major Bugis Kingdom. The lower western seaboard, the Bugis Kingdom of Bone under the rule of King Kerrampelua' (c.1433–83) had also enacted an expansion plan to absorb parts of neighboring Luwu territories into its vassalage. Thus, by two centuries later, it has become an area for intense confrontation between
5092-883: The teaching of Islam in the Kingdom of Kutei , eastern Borneo, in which he was more triumphant. In 1580, the Sultan of Ternate, Babullah, advised the ruler of Gowa to embrace the teaching of Islam, the king declined. However, as a gesture of kindness, he awarded the Makassar-Malay community the consent to construct a mosque . Abdul Makmur returned to Makassar with Sulaiman (Dato' ri Pa'timang) and Abdul Jawad (Dato' ri Tiro). All three of them are from Minangkabau and likely to have been educated in Aceh, before they visited Johor-Riau to study South Sulawesi culture from Bugis-Makassar sailors, followed by study under Wali Songo of Java , in
5168-487: The three major linguistic and ethnic groups of South Sulawesi (the others being Makassarese and Torajan ), in the south-western province of Sulawesi , third-largest island of Indonesia . The Bugis in 1605 converted to Islam from Animism . Although the majority of Bugis are Muslim, a small minority adhere to Christianity as well as a pre-Islamic indigenous belief called Tolotang . The Bugis, whose population numbers around six million and constitutes less than 2.5% of
5244-582: The three of them later managed promoted Islam to the Gowan ruler, to become Muslim under the name of Sultan Ala’uddin. In November 1607, the first public prayers were promulgated in the newly constructed Tallo' Mosque. Conversion began slowly and adapted with native Ammatoa practitioners centered in Bulukumba. The twin kingdom of Gowa and Tallo persuaded other South Sulawesi Kingdoms to emulate their move on adopting Islam as their religion. When this invitation
5320-551: The two kingdoms. While the Makassarese , traditionally occupied the deep down in the south and the western coast of the peninsula were mainly concentrated their political rule in Siang and Bantaeng (the latter was potentially still under Luwu's nominal control). However, the small twin states of Gowa and Tallo (better known by foreigners as a single state of Makassar) were started to gain its importance during this period. By
5396-548: The understanding on ancient human migration. Their Austronesian ancestors settled on Sulawesi around 2500 B.C. There is "historical linguistic evidence of some late Holocene immigration of Austronesian speakers to South Sulawesi from Taiwan "—which means that the Bugis have "possible ultimate ancestry in South China", and that as a result of this immigration, "there was an infusion of an exogenous population from China or Taiwan ." Migration from South China by some of
5472-399: The western coast of South Sulawesi, an area with a high concentration of Malay and Minangkabau merchants arriving from the west. It slowly gained the attention of the kingdoms of Soppeng and Sindereng, with the pursuit to include the area in their territorial expansions, these Bugis states have already lost their direct sea access in the west coast by Luwu. Sidenreng, a tributary under
5548-532: Was also concluded with a military alliance with both states. De Paiva's return to Malacca was not only together with official gifts to the Kingdom of Portugal , but also accompanied with four young Bugis men who would later attend the Jesuit college in Indian Goa . The two Bugis Kings also requested priests and a possible military support from the Portuguese Malaccan governor, potentially to curb
5624-477: Was declined, they launched a series of military actions known as "the Islamic wars". In 1608, the west coast states of Bacukiki', Suppa', Sa wino' and Mandar; and in the east coast, Akkotengeng and Sakkoli' submitted; followed by subjugation of Sidenreng and Soppeng in 1609, Wajo in 1610. Pursuant to the submission from the Bugis state of Bone in 1611, most of the South Sulawesi Peninsula (with
5700-545: Was killed during an amok . A truce was followed soon after in 1591, the peace negotiation, under the Treaty of Caleppa was thus renewed. In the later half of the 16th century, the contest between Islam and Christianity was still largely undecided in South Sulawesi Peninsula. Most of the surrounding kingdoms in Sulawesi have already become Muslims under the sway of Ternate -Gorontalo in 1525 and Buton in 1542. There were already individual converts in South Sulawesi. In 1550,
5776-473: Was mixed, with the colonial government allowing some indigenous social structures to stay in place to maintain agricultural productivity and because they viewed indigenous traditions as a bulwark against Islam. Still, the Dutch contributed to an environment that was hostile to "immoral" sexual practices and identities, especially as a way to differentiate themselves from indigenous people. After independence in 1949,
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