This is an accepted version of this page
118-788: The Blue Cut Fire was a wildfire in the Cajon Pass , northeastern San Gabriel Mountains , and Mojave Desert in San Bernardino County, California . The fire, which began on the Blue Cut hiking trail in the San Bernardino National Forest , was first reported on August 16, 2016 at 10:36 a.m., just west of Interstate 15 . A red flag warning was in effect in the area of the fire, with temperatures near 100 °F (38 °C) and winds gusting up to 30 miles per hour (48 km/h). By August 18,
236-570: A defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 ft) wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by
354-469: A 15 mile radius. Additionally, Sensaio Tech , based in Brazil and Toronto, has released a sensor device that continuously monitors 14 different variables common in forests, ranging from soil temperature to salinity. This information is connected live back to clients through dashboard visualizations, while mobile notifications are provided regarding dangerous levels. Satellite and aerial monitoring through
472-470: A 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth. Climate change promotes the type of weather that makes wildfires more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases evapotranspiration . This can cause vegetation and soils to dry out. When
590-566: A doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Humans have impacted wildfire through climate change (e.g. more intense heat waves and droughts ), land-use change , and wildfire suppression . The carbon released from wildfires can add to carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and thus contribute to the greenhouse effect . This creates a climate change feedback . Naturally occurring wildfires can have beneficial effects on those ecosystems that have evolved with fire. In fact, many plant species depend on
708-417: A fire is usually a major factor in the association of these species. Fynbos shrublands occur in a small belt across South Africa . The plant species in this ecosystem are highly diverse, yet the majority of these species are obligate seeders, that is, a fire will cause germination of the seeds and the plants will begin a new life-cycle because of it. These plants may have coevolved into obligate seeders as
826-610: A fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing. Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because savanna has been converted to cropland , so there are fewer trees to burn. Climate variability including heat waves , droughts , and El Niño , and regional weather patterns, such as high-pressure ridges, can increase
944-415: A fire the deeper they are in the soil. A low fire intensity, a quick passing of the flames and a dry soil will also help. An increase in available nutrients after the fire has passed may result in larger microbial communities than before the fire. The generally greater heat tolerance of bacteria relative to fungi makes it possible for soil microbial population diversity to change following a fire, depending on
1062-471: A fire, or seeking cover if they can burrow. Amphibians and reptiles may avoid flames by burrowing into the ground or using the burrows of other animals. Amphibians in particular are able to take refuge in water or very wet mud. Some arthropods also take shelter during a fire, although the heat and smoke may actually attract some of them, to their peril. Microbial organisms in the soil vary in their heat tolerance but are more likely to be able to survive
1180-573: A fire. For example, after an Australian bushfire , the Mountain Grey Gum tree ( Eucalyptus cypellocarpa ) starts producing a mass of shoots of leaves from the base of the tree all the way up the trunk towards the top, making it look like a black stick completely covered with young, green leaves. Fire-resistant plants suffer little damage during a characteristic fire regime. These include large trees whose flammable parts are high above surface fires. Mature ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa )
1298-463: A fire. Both plants and animals have multiple strategies for surviving and reproducing after fire. Plants in wildfire-prone ecosystems often survive through adaptations to their local fire regime . Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and may eliminate competition . Plants have evolved many adaptations to cope with fire. Of these adaptations, one of
SECTION 10
#17327795137491416-480: A fire; indeed they often profit from being able to take prey fleeing from a fire and to recolonize burned areas quickly afterwards. In fact, many wildlife species globally are dependent on recurring fires in fire-dependent ecosystems to create and maintain habitat. Some anthropological and ethno-ornithological evidence suggests that certain species of fire-foraging raptors may engage in intentional fire propagation to flush out prey. Mammals are often capable of fleeing
1534-476: A forest burns frequently and thus has less plant litter build-up, below-ground soil temperatures rise only slightly and will not be lethal to roots that lie deep in the soil. Although other characteristics of a forest will influence the impact of fire upon it, factors such as climate and topography play an important role in determining fire severity and fire extent. Fires spread most widely during drought years, are most severe on upper slopes and are influenced by
1652-447: A forested area with deadwood was studied and its effect on the endangered beetles. The study found that after the first year of management the number of species increased in abundance and richness compared to pre-fire treatment. The abundance of beetles continued to increase the following year in sites where tree retention was high and deadwood was abundant. The correlation between forest fire management and increased beetle populations shows
1770-593: A historic U.S. Route 66 roadside diner built in 1952, was destroyed by the fire. On Tuesday, August 16, 2016, Caltrans closed Interstate 15 through the Cajon Pass . This Interstate serves as the main route between Los Angeles and Las Vegas, Nevada . Ten of the buildings belonging to the Thanksgiving Korean Church retreat in Phelan were destroyed by the fire. Another victim of the fire lost 135 of her livestock, and most of her property. As
1888-458: A key to conserving these red-listed species. Much of the old growth eucalypt forest in Australia is designated for conservation. Management of these forests is important because species like Eucalyptus grandis rely on fire to survive. There are a few eucalypt species that do not have a lignotuber , a root swelling structure that contains buds where new shoots can then sprout. During a fire
2006-442: A landscape. Soil characteristics will be a factor in determining the specific nature of a fire-adapted ecosystem, as will climate and topography. Different frequencies of fire also result in different successional pathways; short intervals between fires often eliminate tree species due to the time required to rebuild a seed bank, resulting in replacement by lighter seeded species like grasses and forbs. Mild to moderate fires burn in
2124-546: A new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. In 2014, an international campaign
2242-415: A number expected to rise to 30,000 by 2050. The economic impact is also significant, with projected costs reaching $ 240 billion annually by 2050, surpassing other climate-related damages. Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20–25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities. Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of
2360-426: A particular historical fire regime, altered fire regimes may change the selective pressures on plants and favor invasive and non-native species that are better able to exploit the novel post-fire conditions. The Boise National Forest is a US national forest located north and east of the city of Boise, Idaho . Following several uncharacteristically large wildfires, an immediately negative impact on fish populations
2478-428: A particular location is a measure of how common wildfires are in a given ecosystem. It is either defined as the average interval between fires at a given site, or the average interval between fires in an equivalent specified area. Defined as the energy released per unit length of fireline (kW m ), wildfire intensity can be estimated either as Fires can affect soils through heating and combustion processes. Depending on
SECTION 20
#17327795137492596-545: A policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber. Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions. Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and
2714-503: A possible resolution to human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by GIS data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers . A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation,
2832-531: A rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometres per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour (14 mph) in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing . They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through
2950-695: A remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager . During the Yellowstone fires of 1988 , a data station was established in West Yellowstone , permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours. Public hotlines, fire lookouts in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue , time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as
3068-401: A response to fire and nutrient-poor soils. Because fire is common in this ecosystem and the soil has limited nutrients, it is most efficient for plants to produce many seeds and then die in the next fire. Investing a lot of energy in roots to survive the next fire when those roots will be able to extract little extra benefit from the nutrient-poor soil would be less efficient. It is possible that
3186-569: A strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network . Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or tree-rechargeable : able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as
3304-574: Is a concern for grasslands in the Western United States . In less arid grassland presettlement fires worked in concert with grazing to create a healthy grassland ecosystem as indicated by the accumulation of soil organic matter significantly altered by fire. The tallgrass prairie ecosystem in the Flint Hills of eastern Kansas and Oklahoma is responding positively to the current use of fire in combination with grazing. In
3422-433: Is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems . Many ecosystems, particularly prairie , savanna , chaparral and coniferous forests , have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also
3540-412: Is a term that ecologists use to refer to the impact that a fire has on an ecosystem. It is usually studied using tools such as remote sensing which can detect burned area estimates, severity and fire risk associated with an area. Ecologists can define this in many ways, but one way is through an estimate of plant mortality. Fires can burn at three elevation levels. Ground fires will burn through soil that
3658-401: Is an example of a tree species that suffers little to no crown damage during a low severity fire because it sheds its lower, vulnerable branches as it matures. Like plants, animals display a range of abilities to cope with fire, but they differ from most plants in that they must avoid the actual fire to survive. Although birds may be vulnerable when nesting, they are generally able to escape
Blue Cut Fire - Misplaced Pages Continue
3776-411: Is debate as to what land managers should aim to restore their ecosystems to, especially as to whether it be pre-human or pre-European conditions. Native American use of fire , along with natural fire, historically maintained the diversity of the savannas of North America . A combination of heavy livestock grazing and fire-suppression has drastically altered the structure, composition, and diversity of
3894-467: Is different in every ecosystem and the organisms in those ecosystems have adapted accordingly. One sweeping generality is that in all ecosystems, fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, with areas ranging from those having just been burned to those that have been untouched by fire for many years. This is a form of ecological succession in which a freshly burned site will progress through continuous and directional phases of colonization following
4012-405: Is governed in part by topography , as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows: Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation that
4130-728: Is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54,500 square kilometers (13,000,000 acres) per year. Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of
4248-496: Is now regarded as a 'natural disturbance', similar to flooding , windstorms , and landslides , that has driven the evolution of species and controls the characteristics of ecosystems. Fire suppression, in combination with other human-caused environmental changes, may have resulted in unforeseen consequences for natural ecosystems. Some large wildfires in the United States have been blamed on years of fire suppression and
4366-473: Is prone to offset errors, anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers (1 to 2 mi) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) for GOES data. Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery. Global Forest Watch provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts. In 2015
4484-430: Is rich in organic matter. Surface fires will burn through living and dead plant material at ground level. Crown fires will burn through the tops of shrubs and trees. Ecosystems generally experience a mix of all three. Fires will often break out during a dry season, but in some areas wildfires also commonly occur during times of year when lightning is prevalent. The frequency over a span of years at which fire will occur at
4602-662: Is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its fire point . Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity , and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration , but water loss
4720-482: Is the name given to an attempt to reverse or mitigate some of the changes that humans have caused to an ecosystem. Controlled burning is one tool that is currently receiving considerable attention as a means of restoration and management. Applying fire to an ecosystem may create habitats for species that have been negatively impacted by fire suppression, or fire may be used as a way of controlling invasive species without resorting to herbicides or pesticides. However, there
4838-768: Is the primary mode of decomposition , making it crucial in the recycling of nutrients . In some grassland systems, fire only became the primary mode of decomposition after the disappearance of large migratory herds of browsing or grazing megafauna driven by predator pressure. In the absence of functional communities of large migratory herds of herbivorous megafauna and attendant predators, overuse of fire to maintain grassland ecosystems may lead to excessive oxidation, loss of carbon, and desertification in susceptible climates. Some grassland ecosystems respond poorly to fire. In North America fire-adapted invasive grasses such as Bromus tectorum contribute to increased fire frequency which exerts selective pressure against native species. This
Blue Cut Fire - Misplaced Pages Continue
4956-416: Is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, often as a consequence of droughts , plants dry out and are therefore more flammable. A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches,
5074-418: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season "an independent study found online bots and trolls exaggerating the role of arson in the fires." In the 2023 Canadian wildfires false claims of arson gained traction on social media; however, arson is generally not a main cause of wildfires in Canada. In California, generally 6–10% of wildfires annually are arson. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around
5192-965: The Amazon rainforest . The fires in the latter were caused mainly by illegal logging . The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality. As of August 2020, the wildfires in that year were 13% worse than in 2019 due primarily to climate change , deforestation and agricultural burning. The Amazon rainforest 's existence is threatened by fires. Record-breaking wildfires in 2021 occurred in Turkey , Greece and Russia , thought to be linked to climate change. The carbon released from wildfires can add to greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate models do not yet fully reflect this feedback . Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into
5310-569: The European Union . In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires was significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 giga tonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons ) of CO 2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. In June and July 2019, fires in
5428-480: The Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS). Between 2022–2023, wildfires throughout North America prompted an uptake in the delivery and design of various technologies using artificial intelligence for early detection, prevention, and prediction of wildfires. Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations
5546-504: The Paris climate agreement . Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere, the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time. Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15%. The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019,
5664-514: The forest understory , removing small trees and herbaceous groundcover . High-severity fires will burn into the crowns of the trees and kill most of the dominant vegetation. Crown fires may require support from ground fuels to maintain the fire in the forest canopy (passive crown fires), or the fire may burn in the canopy independently of any ground fuel support (an active crown fire). High-severity fire creates complex early seral forest habitat, or snag forest with high levels of biodiversity. When
5782-416: The savanna of South Africa , recently burned areas have new growth that provides palatable and nutritious forage compared to older, tougher grasses. This new forage attracts large herbivores from areas of unburned and grazed grassland that has been kept short by constant grazing. On these unburned "lawns", only those plant species adapted to heavy grazing are able to persist; but the distraction provided by
5900-401: The soil's porosity . Removal of vegetation following a fire can cause several effects on the soil, such as increasing the temperatures of the soil during the day due to increased solar radiation on the soil surface, and greater cooling due to loss of radiative heat at night. Less plant matter to intercept rain will allow more to reach the soil surface, and with fewer plants to absorb the water,
6018-429: The taiga biome are particularly susceptible. Wildfires can severely impact humans and their settlements. Effects include for example the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, as well as destruction of property (especially in wildland–urban interfaces ), and economic losses. There is also the potential for contamination of water and soil. At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with
SECTION 50
#17327795137496136-463: The Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive CO 2 emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with
6254-442: The United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons , and heliographs . Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at
6372-779: The Western US, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California may be partially attributable to human-induced climate change . In the summer of 1974–1975 (southern hemisphere), Australia suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage". Fires that summer burned up an estimated 117 million hectares (290 million acres ; 1,170,000 square kilometres ; 450,000 square miles ). In Australia,
6490-521: The accumulation of dead plant material from eight years of drought, contributed to a catastrophic outcome. Although some have maintained that fire suppression contributed to an unnatural buildup of fuel loads, a detailed analysis of historical fire data has showed that this may not have been the case. Fire suppression activities had failed to exclude fire from the southern California chaparral. Research showing differences in fire size and frequency between southern California and Baja has been used to imply that
6608-435: The air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks . Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires , spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres (12 mi) from
6726-424: The amount of water content in the soils might increase. However, ash can be water repellent when dry, and therefore water content and availability might not actually increase. Fire adaptations are traits of plants and animals that help them survive wildfire or to use resources created by wildfire. These traits can help plants and animals increase their survival rates during a fire and/or reproduce offspring after
6844-454: The animals that depend upon them. Wildfire suppression campaigns in the United States have historically molded public opinion to believe that wildfires are harmful to nature. Ecological research has shown, however, that fire is an integral component in the function and biodiversity of many natural habitats, and that the organisms within these communities have adapted to withstand, and even to exploit, natural wildfire. More generally, fire
6962-732: The annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically. For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia. In 2019, extreme heat and dryness caused massive wildfires in Siberia , Alaska , Canary Islands , Australia , and in
7080-444: The atmosphere. These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from
7198-471: The atmospheric oxygen needed for combustion during the Devonian approximately 350 million years ago. Then, approximately 125 million years ago, fire began to influence the habitat of land plants . In the 20th century ecologist Charles Cooper made a plea for fire as an ecosystem process. A fire regime describes the characteristics of fire and how it interacts with a particular ecosystem. Its "severity"
SECTION 60
#17327795137497316-462: The best-known is likely pyriscence , where maturation and release of seeds is triggered, in whole or in part, by fire or smoke; this behaviour is often erroneously called serotiny , although this term truly denotes the much broader category of seed release activated by any stimulus. All pyriscent plants are serotinous, but not all serotinous plants are pyriscent (some are necriscent, hygriscent, xeriscent, soliscent, or some combination thereof). On
7434-433: The canopy and spread continuously if the shrubs are close enough together. Shrublands are typically dry and are prone to accumulations of highly volatile fuels, especially on hillsides. Fires will follow the path of least moisture and the greatest amount of dead fuel material. Surface and below-ground soil temperatures during a burn are generally higher than those of forest fires because the centers of combustion lie closer to
7552-424: The continuing expansion of people into fire-adapted ecosystems as well as climate change . Land managers are faced with tough questions regarding how to restore a natural fire regime , but allowing wildfires to burn is likely the least expensive and most effective method in many situations. Fire has played a major role in shaping the world's vegetation. The biological process of photosynthesis began to concentrate
7670-504: The destruction caused by the fire. Ecologists usually characterize succession through the changes in vegetation that successively arise. After a fire, the first species to re-colonize will be those with seeds are already present in the soil, or those with seeds are able to travel into the burned area quickly. These are generally fast-growing herbaceous plants that require light and are intolerant of shading. As time passes, more slowly growing, shade-tolerant woody species will suppress some of
7788-606: The direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana , United States, thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires , at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire. Fire ecology Fire ecology
7906-487: The dormant season is most effective at increasing the grass and forb cover, biodiversity and plant nutrient uptake in shortgrass prairies. Managers must also take into account, however, how invasive and non-native species respond to fire if they want to restore the integrity of a native ecosystem. For example, fire can only control the invasive spotted knapweed ( Centaurea maculosa ) on the Michigan tallgrass prairie in
8024-697: The earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million. Some research has shown wildfire smoke can have a cooling effect. Research in 2007 stated that black carbon in snow changed temperature three times more than atmospheric carbon dioxide. As much as 94 percent of Arctic warming may be caused by dark carbon on snow that initiates melting. The dark carbon comes from fossil fuels burning, wood and other biofuels, and forest fires. Melting can occur even at low concentrations of dark carbon (below five parts per billion)". Wildfire prevention refers to
8142-411: The economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life. The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger. Fire lookout towers were used in
8260-552: The effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire severity results from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles with wet periods that create substantial fuels, followed by drought and heat, often precede severe wildfires. These cycles have been intensified by climate change . Wildfires are a common type of disaster in some regions, including Siberia (Russia), California (United States), British Columbia (Canada), and Australia . Areas with Mediterranean climates or in
8378-412: The effects of fire for growth and reproduction. The ignition of a fire takes place through either natural causes or human activity (deliberate or not). Natural occurrences that can ignite wildfires without the involvement of humans include lightning , volcanic eruptions , sparks from rock falls, and spontaneous combustions . Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or
8496-399: The event must usually be of high temperatures for significant loss of nutrients to occur. However, the quantity of bioavailable nutrients in the soil usually increases due to the ash that is generated, as compared to the slow release of nutrients by decomposition. Rock spalling (or thermal exfoliation ) accelerates weathering of rock and potentially the release of some nutrients. Increase in
8614-486: The fire approached a corridor of three 500 kV and two 287 kV transmission lines, 15 line faults in a short period of time occurred. The voltage drops and the disturbed frequency signal lead to significant losses of PV generation in the area, the most significant was nearly 1200 MW around 11:45 a.m. Wildfire A wildfire , forest fire , or a bushfire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation . Depending on
8732-806: The fire frequency of vast northern peatlands is linked to processes controlling the carbon dioxide levels of the atmosphere, and to the phenomenon of global warming. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is abundant in wetlands and plays a critical role in their ecology. In the Florida Everglades , a significant portion of the DOC is "dissolved charcoal" indicating that fire can play a critical role in wetland ecosystems. Fire serves many important functions within fire-adapted ecosystems. Fire plays an important role in nutrient cycling , diversity maintenance and habitat structure. The suppression of fire can lead to unforeseen changes in ecosystems that often adversely affect
8850-402: The fire front. Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect : air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns . Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds , strong winds, and fire whirls with
8968-599: The fire had burned 37,000 acres (57.8 sq mi; 149.7 km) of land and destroyed 105 homes and 213 other structures. Shortly after the fire broke out, evacuations began to be ordered for the nearby communities of West Cajon Valley , Lytle Creek , Lone Pine Canyon and Swarthout Canyon. By 3:00 p.m. on August 16, less than six hours after the fire started, it had spread westward to over 5,500 acres (2,200 ha), forcing additional mandatory evacuation orders for most of Oak Hills , Phelan and Summit Valley . Two firefighters were injured and briefly hospitalized on
9086-402: The fire had grown to over 31,600 acres (49.4 sq mi; 127.9 km) and forced the evacuation of over 82,000 residents. The evacuations affected an estimated 34,500 residences. On Monday, August 22, fire officials said they had the fire 89% contained. The damaged area had grown to 37,020 acres (57.8 sq mi; 149.8 km). Fire officials declared that the devastating wildfire
9204-417: The fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation . First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F). Next, the pyrolysis of wood at 230 °C (450 °F) releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at 380 °C (720 °F) or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at 590 °C (1,000 °F). Even before
9322-452: The flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 °C (1,470 °F), which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching : the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below. Wildfires have
9440-441: The force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions. Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms
9558-417: The frequency of wildfires has increased at a rapid rate in recent years. This is largely due to decreases in precipitation, increases in temperature, and increases in human ignitions. Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting different stages in this process of succession, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within
9676-454: The ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around
9794-663: The ground, although this can vary greatly. Common plants in shrubland or chaparral include manzanita , chamise and coyote brush . California shrubland, commonly known as chaparral , is a widespread plant community of low growing species, typically on arid sloping areas of the California Coast Ranges or western foothills of the Sierra Nevada . There are a number of common shrubs and tree shrub forms in this association, including salal , toyon , coffeeberry and Western poison oak . Regeneration following
9912-405: The heating of soil and increased nutrient content in the soil, though studies have also found complete loss of microbes on the top layer of soil after a fire. Overall, soils become more basic (higher pH) following fires because of acid combustion. By driving novel chemical reactions at high temperatures, fire can even alter the texture and structure of soils by affecting the clay content and
10030-452: The herbaceous plants. Conifers are often early successional species, while broad leaf trees frequently replace them in the absence of fire. Hence, many conifer forests are themselves dependent upon recurring fire. Both natural and human fires affect all ecosystems from peatlands to shrublands to forests and tropical landscapes. This impacts the way that the ecosystem is structured and functions. Though there have always been wildfires naturally,
10148-495: The infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as night vision , brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays . The Department of Natural Resources signed a contract with PanoAI for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of 24/7 monitoring of
10266-420: The initial fire, such as its size and intensity, cause the habitat to evolve differentially afterwards and influence how vertebrate species are able to use the burned areas. The change in forest fire intensity over time has been studied for the period since 1600 in an area of central British Columbia and is consistent with fire suppression since regulation was introduced. Shrub fires typically concentrate in
10384-537: The lack of competition in a burnt landscape. Other plants have smoke-activated seeds, or fire-activated buds. The cones of the Lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) are, conversely, pyriscent: they are sealed with a resin that a fire melts away, releasing the seeds. Many plant species, including the shade-intolerant giant sequoia ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ), require fire to make gaps in the vegetation canopy that will let in light, allowing their seedlings to compete with
10502-432: The larger fires north of the border are the result of fire suppression, but this opinion has been challenged by numerous investigators and ecologists. One consequence of the fires in 2003 has been the increased density of invasive and non-native plant species that have quickly colonized burned areas, especially those that had already been burned in the previous 15 years. Because shrubs in these communities are adapted to
10620-484: The more shade-tolerant seedlings of other species, and so establish themselves. Because their stationary nature precludes any fire avoidance, plant species may only be fire-intolerant, fire-tolerant or fire-resistant. Fire-intolerant plant species tend to be highly flammable and are destroyed completely by fire. Some of these plants and their seeds may simply fade from the community after a fire and not return; others have adapted to ensure that their offspring survives into
10738-524: The morning of August 16, 2016 after becoming trapped while protecting homes in Swarthout Canyon. In a conference on August 17, the incident commander, battalion chief Michael Wakoski, stated that Cajon Pass acts as a natural wind tunnel , creating a funnel that can increase wind speeds by 20–30 miles per hour (32–48 km/h). These winds were causing the fire to spot upwards of a half mile (0.8 km) ahead of itself. By Thursday, August 18,
10856-502: The newly burned areas allows grazing-intolerant grasses to grow back into the lawns that have been temporarily abandoned, so allowing these species to persist within that ecosystem. Much of the southeastern United States was once open longleaf pine forest with a rich understory of grasses, sedges, carnivorous plants and orchids. These ecosystems had the highest fire frequency of any habitat, once per decade or less. Without fire, deciduous forest trees invade, and their shade eliminates both
10974-689: The next generation. "Obligate seeders" are plants with large, fire-activated seed banks that germinate, grow, and mature rapidly following a fire, in order to reproduce and renew the seed bank before the next fire. Seeds may contain the receptor protein KAI2, that is activated by the growth hormones karrikin released by the fire. Fire-tolerant species are able to withstand a degree of burning and continue growing despite damage from fire. These plants are sometimes referred to as " resprouters ". Ecologists have shown that some species of resprouters store extra energy in their roots to aid recovery and re-growth following
11092-485: The other hand, germination of seed activated by trigger is not to be confused with pyriscence; it is known as physiological dormancy . In chaparral communities in Southern California , for example, some plants have leaves coated in flammable oils that encourage an intense fire. This heat causes their fire-activated seeds to germinate (an example of dormancy) and the young plants can then capitalize on
11210-402: The pH of the soil following a fire is commonly observed, most likely due to the formation of calcium carbonate, and the subsequent decomposition of this calcium carbonate to calcium oxide when temperatures get even higher. It could also be due to the increased cation content in the soil due to the ash, which temporarily increases soil pH . Microbial activity in the soil might also increase due to
11328-425: The peat substrate itself may burn, leaving holes that refill with water as new ponds. Fires that are less intense will remove accumulated litter and allow other wetland plants to regenerate from buried seeds, or from rhizomes. Wetlands that are influenced by fire include coastal marshes , wet prairies, peat bogs , floodplains , prairie marshes and flatwoods . Since wetlands can store large amounts of carbon in peat,
11446-580: The pines and the understory. Some of the typical plants associated with fire include yellow pitcher plant and rose pogonia . The abundance and diversity of such plants is closely related to fire frequency. Rare animals such as gopher tortoises and indigo snakes also depend upon these open grasslands and flatwoods . Hence, the restoration of fire is a priority to maintain species composition and biological diversity. Many kinds of wetlands are also influenced by fire. This usually occurs during periods of drought. In landscapes with peat soils, such as bogs,
11564-409: The plants, animals and humans that depend upon that habitat. Wildfires that deviate from a historical fire regime because of fire suppression are called "uncharacteristic fires". In 2003, southern California witnessed powerful chaparral wildfires. Hundreds of homes and hundreds of thousands of acres of land went up in flames. Extreme fire weather (low humidity, low fuel moisture and high winds) and
11682-484: The preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to affect future fires. Prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement. Wildfire prevention programs around
11800-433: The rapid generation time that these obligate seeders display has led to more rapid evolution and speciation in this ecosystem, resulting in its highly diverse plant community. Grasslands burn more readily than forest and shrub ecosystems, with the fire moving through the stems and leaves of herbaceous plants and only lightly heating the underlying soil, even in cases of high intensity. In most grassland ecosystems, fire
11918-404: The risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of high precipitation can produce rapid vegetation growth, which when followed by warmer periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. High temperatures dry out the fuel loads and make them more flammable, increasing tree mortality and posing significant risks to global forest health. Since the mid-1980s, in
12036-439: The severity of the fire, the depth of the microbes in the soil, and the presence of plant cover. Certain species of fungi, such as Cylindrocarpon destructans appear to be unaffected by combustion contaminants, which can inhibit re-population of burnt soil by other microorganisms, and therefore have a higher chance of surviving fire disturbance and then recolonizing and out-competing other fungal species afterwards. Fire behavior
12154-490: The shortgrass prairie ecosystem on the Great Plains , allowing woody species to dominate many areas and promoting fire-intolerant invasive species. In semi-arid ecosystems where the decomposition of woody material is slow, fire is crucial for returning nutrients to the soil and allowing the grasslands to maintain their high productivity. Although fire can occur during the growing or the dormant seasons, managed fire during
12272-590: The summer, because this is the time in the knapweed's life cycle that is most important to its reproductive growth. Mixed conifer forests in the United States Sierra Nevada used to have fire return intervals that ranged from 5 years up to 300 years, depending on the locale. Lower elevations tended to have more frequent fire return intervals, whilst higher and wetter sites saw longer intervals between fires. Native Americans tended to set fires during fall and winter, and land at higher elevations
12390-399: The techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles , planes , and helicopters . Complete fire suppression
12508-413: The temperatures of the soils during the combustion process, different effects will happen- from evaporation of water at the lower temperature ranges, to the combustion of soil organic matter and the formation of pyrogenic organic matter, such as charcoal. Fires can cause changes in soil nutrients through a variety of mechanisms, which include oxidation, volatilization, erosion, and leaching by water, but
12626-666: The type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire ( in Australia ), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire, or veld fire. Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire. Wildfires are different from controlled or prescribed burning , which are carried out to provide a benefit for people. Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake. Wildfires can be classified by cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and
12744-601: The type of vegetation that is growing. In Canada , forests cover about 10% of the land area and yet harbor 70% of the country’s bird and terrestrial mammal species. Natural fire regimes are important in maintaining a diverse assemblage of vertebrate species in up to twelve different forest types in British Columbia . Different species have adapted to exploit the different stages of succession, regrowth and habitat change that occurs following an episode of burning, such as downed trees and debris. The characteristics of
12862-540: The uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia. In the tropics , farmers often practice the slash-and-burn method of clearing fields during the dry season . In middle latitudes , the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), overhead power lines , and arson . Arson may account for over 20% of human caused fires. However, in
12980-936: The use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires. Satellite-mounted sensors such as Envisat 's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote-Sensing Satellite 's Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than 39 °C (102 °F). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Hazard Mapping System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations. However, satellite detection
13098-411: The wildfires. While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales. The health effects of wildfire smoke, such as worsening cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, extend beyond immediate exposure, contributing to nearly 16,000 annual deaths,
13216-519: The world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use (WFU) and prescribed or controlled burns . Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity. Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over
13334-552: The world, such as those in Burning Mountain , New South Wales; Centralia , Pennsylvania; and several coal-sustained fires in China . They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. (Fire) Good luck deleting this, Frost! (Fire) The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density
13452-466: The years. One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is controlled burning : intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity. While other people claim that controlled burns and
13570-646: Was fully contained on Tuesday, August 23. The fire destroyed an estimated 105 homes and 213 other structures in San Bernardino County, and now ranks as the 20th most destructive wildfire in state history, according to Daniel Berlant, a spokesman for the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Due to the rapid growth and spread of the fire, fire officials ordered mandatory evacuations for over 82,000 residents in surrounding communities, including Wrightwood . The Summit Inn ,
13688-781: Was generally occupied by Native Americans only during the summer. The decline of habitat area and quality has caused many species populations to be red-listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . According to a study on forest management of Finnish boreal forests, improving the habitat quality of areas outside reserves can help in conservation efforts of endangered deadwood-dependent beetles. These beetles and various types of fungi both need dead trees in order to survive. Old growth forests can provide this particular habitat. However, most Fennoscandian boreal forested areas are used for timber and therefore are unprotected. The use of controlled burning and tree retention of
13806-410: Was observed, posing particular danger to small and isolated fish populations. In the long term, however, fire appears to rejuvenate fish habitats by causing hydraulic changes that increase flooding and lead to silt removal and the deposition of a favorable habitat substrate. This leads to larger post-fire populations of the fish that are able to recolonize these improved areas. Restoration ecology
13924-794: Was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger. Since 2021 NASA has provided active fire locations in near real-time via
#748251