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54-565: See text Blueberries are a widely distributed and widespread group of perennial flowering plants with blue or purple berries. They are classified in the section Cyanococcus within the genus Vaccinium . Commercial blueberries—both wild (lowbush) and cultivated (highbush)—are all native to North America. The highbush varieties were introduced into Europe during the 1930s. Blueberries are usually prostrate shrubs that can vary in size from 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 4 meters (13 feet) in height. In commercial production of blueberries,

108-443: A century plant can live for 80 years and grow 30 meters tall before flowering and dying. However, most perennials are polycarpic (or iteroparous ), flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials invest more resources than annuals into roots, crowns, and other structures that allow them to live from one year to the next. They often have a competitive advantage because they can commence their growth and leaf out earlier in

162-940: A photolyase and the other, a protein involved in nucleotide excision repair ). Perennials that are cultivated include: woody plants like fruit trees grown for their edible fruits; shrubs and trees grown as landscaping ornamentals ; herbaceous food crops like asparagus , rhubarb , strawberries ; and subtropical plants not hardy in colder areas such as tomatoes , eggplant , and coleus (which are treated as annuals in colder areas). Perennials also include plants grown for their flowering and other ornamental value including bulbs (like tulips, narcissus, and gladiolus); lawn grass, and other groundcovers , (such as periwinkle and Dichondra ). Each type of plant must be separated differently; for example, plants with fibrous root systems like daylilies, Siberian iris, or grasses can be pried apart with two garden forks inserted back to back, or cut by knives. However, plants such as bearded irises have

216-483: A few years leading up to 2018 and rapidly increased in production and sales in that time (as with berries in general). As of 2018 it remains relatively unmolested by pests and diseases (see Diseases below). In the Southern Hemisphere , Brazil, Chile, Argentina , Peru , Uruguay , New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and Zimbabwe grow blueberries commercially. In Brazil, blueberries are produced in

270-441: A plant with a different genetic composition, causing within the same species differences in growth, productivity, color, leaf characteristics, disease resistance, flavor, and other fruit characteristics. The mother plant develops underground stems called rhizomes , allowing the plant to form a network of rhizomes creating a large patch (called a clone ) which is genetically distinct. Floral and leaf buds develop intermittently along

324-470: A root system of rhizomes; these root systems should be planted with the top of the rhizome just above ground level, with leaves from the following year showing. The point of dividing perennials is to increase the amount of a single breed of plant in your garden. In the United States more than 900 million dollars worth of potted herbaceous perennial plants were sold in 2019. Although most of humanity

378-951: A valuable crop in the Northeastern United States. For this work he received the George Roberts White Medal of Honor from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society . The rabbiteye blueberry ( Vaccinium virgatum syn. V. ashei ) is a southern type of blueberry produced from the Carolinas to the Gulf Coast states. Production of rabbiteye blueberries was a focus in Texas in the early 21st century. Other important species in North America include V. pallidum ,

432-479: A very few (e.g. Zostera ) occurring in shallow sea water. Herbaceous perennial plants are particularly dominant in conditions too fire-prone for trees and shrubs, e.g., most plants on prairies and steppes are perennials; they are also dominant on tundra too cold for tree growth. Nearly all forest plants are perennials, including trees and shrubs. Perennial plants are usually better long-term competitors, especially under stable, resource-poor conditions. This

486-423: Is a berry 5–16 mm ( 3 ⁄ 16 – 5 ⁄ 8  in) in diameter with a flared crown at the end; they are pale greenish at first, then reddish-purple, and finally uniformly blue when ripe. They are covered in a protective coating of powdery epicuticular wax , colloquially known as the "bloom". They generally have a sweet taste when mature, with variable acidity. Blueberry bushes typically bear fruit in

540-429: Is a quarantine pest in phytosanitary regimes of some countries around the world. Insect resistance was not a priority in breeding programs until about the year 2000, and is still not a high priority. However it may become more common as it becomes easier, especially using marker-assisted breeding . V. ashei is naturally more resistant than V. corymbosum to Scaphytopius magdalensis . V. ashei

594-557: Is a pest of blueberries and birches which is successfully parasitized by Cyzenis albicans despite the lack of historical, natural contact between the two. The same results were obtained with Scirtothrips citri and Beauveria bassiana . Results are available for Choristoneura rosaceana and overwhelming numbers of Trichogramma minutum , and Cyclocephala longula overwhelmed by Steinernema scarabaei . This has also been attempted with flower thrips and potential predators but with inconclusive results. Rhagoletis mendax

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648-415: Is also a class of evergreen perennials which lack woody stems, such as Bergenia which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year. An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs , which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e.g. Penstemon . The symbol for a perennial plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus , is [REDACTED] , which is also the astronomical symbol for

702-538: Is considered different from both high- and lowbush. Vaccinium has a mostly circumpolar distribution , with species mainly present in North America, Europe, and Asia. Many commercially available species with English common names including "blueberry" are from North America, particularly Atlantic Canada and the northeastern United States for wild (lowbush) blueberries, and several US states and British Columbia for cultivated (highbush) blueberries. North American native species of blueberries are grown commercially in

756-783: Is due to the development of larger root systems which can access water and soil nutrients deeper in the soil and to earlier emergence in the spring. Annual plants have an advantage in disturbed environments because of their faster growth and reproduction rates. Each section contains a short list of species related to that topic, these are an example as the true lists would fill several books. Perennials grown for their decorative flowers include very many species and types. Some examples include: The majority of fruit bearing plants are perennial even in temperate climates. Examples include: Many herbs are perennial, including these examples: Many vegetable plants can grow as perennials in tropical climates, but die in cold weather. Examples of some of

810-483: Is fed by the re-sowing of the seeds of annual grain crops, (either naturally or by the manual efforts of humans), perennial crops provide numerous benefits. Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion , capture dissolved nitrogen before it can contaminate ground and surface water, and out-compete weeds (reducing the need for herbicides ). These potential benefits of perennials have resulted in new attempts to increase

864-833: Is found from the Atlantic provinces westward to Quebec and southward to Michigan and West Virginia . In some areas, it produces natural "blueberry barrens", where it is the dominant species covering large areas. Several First Nations communities in Ontario are involved in harvesting wild blueberries. "Wild" has been adopted as a marketing term for harvests of managed native stands of lowbush blueberries. The bushes are not planted or selectively bred , but they are pruned or burned over every two years, and pests are "managed". Numerous highbush cultivars of blueberries are available, with diversity among them, each having individual qualities. A blueberry breeding program has been established by

918-575: Is less resistant than V. darrowii to Prodiplosis vaccinia . There is variation between cultivars of V. ashei in resistance to Oberea myops . There is variation in resistance among cultivars of V. corymbosum to Acrobasis vaccinii and Popillia japonica . Wild V. spp. have greater resistance than highbush cultivars to I. pepperi . There is significant variation between highbush cultivars in abundance of various Tephritidae , thrips, and Homalodisca vitripennis . In 2021, world production of blueberries (lowbush and highbush combined)

972-451: Is the official fruit of Maine. Canadian production of wild and cultivated blueberries in 2015 was 166,000 tonnes valued at $ 262 million, the largest fruit crop produced nationally accounting for 29% of all fruit value. British Columbia was the largest Canadian producer of cultivated blueberries, yielding 70,000 tonnes in 2015, the world's largest production of blueberries by region. Atlantic Canada contributes approximately half of

1026-429: Is too cold or dry. In many parts of the world, seasonality is expressed as wet and dry periods rather than warm and cold periods, and deciduous perennials lose their leaves in the dry season. Some perennial plants are protected from wildfires because they have underground roots that produce adventitious shoots, bulbs, crowns , or stems ; other perennials like trees and shrubs may have thick cork layers that protect

1080-694: The Flora of New Brunswick , published in 1986 by Harold R. Hinds, and Plants of the Pacific Northwest coast , published in 1994 by Pojar and MacKinnon. Some other blue-fruited species of Vaccinium : The lowbush varieties are V. angustifolium , V. boreale , V. mytilloides , V. pallidum , and V. angustifolium × V. corymbosum . They are still grown in a similar manner to pre-Columbian semi-wild cultivation, i.e. slash and burn . The highbush varieties are darrowii and corymbosum. Rabbiteye ( V. ashei / V. virgatum )

1134-619: The Pacific Northwest and southern United States, South America, Europe and Asia. Other wild shrubs in many of these regions produce similar-looking edible berries, such as huckleberries and whortleberries (North America) and bilberries (Europe). These species are sometimes called "blueberries" and are sold as blueberry jam or other products. The names of blueberries in languages other than English often translate as "blueberry", e.g. Scots blaeberry and Norwegian blåbær . Blaeberry , blåbær and French myrtilles usually refer to

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1188-513: The USDA-ARS breeding program at Beltsville, Maryland , and Chatsworth, New Jersey . This program began when Frederick Vernon Coville of the USDA-ARS collaborated with Elizabeth Coleman White of New Jersey . In the early part of the 20th century, White offered pineland residents cash for wild blueberry plants with unusually large fruit. After 1910 Coville began to work on blueberry, and was

1242-421: The phytoplasma that causes blueberry stunt). Managing pests down to the cosmetic level is necessary in this fruit because they are a premium type product. Changes in locale and environment – to new geographies, and into greenhouses – has required new pest management regimes, including innovative IPM. Conversely, importing foreign potential enemies into North America may yield good results: Operophtera brumata

1296-466: The 21st century, the industry grew in Argentina : "Argentine blueberry production has increased over the last three years with planted area up to 400 percent," according to a 2005 report by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. "Argentine blueberry production has thrived in four different regions: the province of Entre Rios in northeastern Argentina, the province of Tucuman, the province of Buenos Aires and

1350-480: The Canadian highbush blueberry crop in 2019. Perennial Perennials (especially small flowering plants ) that grow and bloom over the spring and summer, die back every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their rootstock or other overwintering structure, are known as herbaceous perennials . However, depending on the rigours of the local climate (temperature, moisture, organic content in

1404-775: The European native V. myrtillus (bilberry), while bleuets refers to the North American blueberry. Russian голубика ("blue berry") does not refer to blueberries, which are non-native and nearly unknown in Russia, but rather to their close relatives V. uliginosum (bog bilberries). Cyanococcus blueberries can be distinguished from the nearly identical-looking bilberries by their flesh color when cut in half. Ripe blueberries have light green flesh, while bilberries, whortleberries and huckleberries are red or purple throughout. Note: habitat and range summaries are from

1458-770: The Southern Hemisphere in Australia, New Zealand and South American nations. Vaccinium meridionale (the Andean blueberry) is wild-harvested and commonly available locally. Several other wild shrubs of the genus Vaccinium also produce commonly eaten blue berries, such as the predominantly European V. myrtillus and other bilberries , which in many languages have a name that translates to "blueberry" in English. Blueberries may be cultivated, or they may be picked from semiwild or wild bushes. In North America,

1512-446: The advantage of generating larger seedlings that can better compete with other plants. Perennials also produce seeds over many years. An important aspect of cold acclimation is overexpression of DNA repair genes. In Thinopyrum intermedium a perennial relative of common wheat Triticum aestivum , conditions of freezing stress were shown to be associated with large increases in expression of two DNA repair genes (one gene product

1566-510: The dormancy period is over and new growth begins. In climates that are warm all year long, perennials may grow continuously. Annuals which complete their life cycle in one growing season, in contrast with perennials, produce seeds as the next generation and die; the seeds may survive cold or dry periods or germinate soon after dispersal depending on the climate. Some perennials retain their foliage year-round; these are evergreen perennials. Deciduous perennials shed all their leaves part of

1620-555: The first to discover the importance of soil acidity (blueberries need highly acidic soil), that blueberries do not self-pollinate, and the effects of cold on blueberries and other plants. In 1911, he began a program of research in conjunction with White, daughter of the owner of the extensive cranberry bogs at Whitesbog in the New Jersey Pine Barrens . His work doubled the size of some strains' fruit, and by 1916, he had succeeded in cultivating blueberries, making them

1674-541: The growing season, and can grow taller than annuals. In doing so they can better compete for space and collect more light. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living from one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs , tubers , woody crowns, rhizomes , turions , woody stems, or crowns which allows them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons; these structures typically store carbohydrates which are used once

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1728-674: The hillside or dryland blueberry. It is native to the eastern U.S., and common in the Appalachians and the Piedmont of the Southeast. Sparkleberry, V. arboreum , is a common wild species on sandy soils in the Southeast. Successful blueberry cultivation requires attention to soil pH ( acidity ) measurements in the acidic range. Blueberry bushes often require supplemental fertilization, but over-fertilization with nitrogen can damage plant health, as evidenced by nitrogen-burn visible on

1782-620: The hormones produced due to environmental situations (i.e., seasons), reproduction, and stage of development to begin and halt the ability to grow or flower. There is also a distinction between the ability to grow and the actual task of growth. For example, most trees regain the ability to grow during winter but do not initiate physical growth until the spring and summer months. The start of dormancy can be seen in perennial plants through withering flowers, loss of leaves on trees, and halting of reproduction in both flowering and budding plants. Perennial species may produce relatively large seeds that have

1836-625: The invasive pest Drosophila suzukii . Some insecticides can be counterproductive, harming natural enemies of pests as well. For example, treatment for Illinoia pepperi can reduce populations of its predators . Kaolin clay for Rhagoletis mendax also reduced effectiveness of Diachasma alloeum , its parasitoid . The pest predator Harpalus erraticus maintains greater abundance with selective insecticides rather than broad-spectrum MoAs. Blueberries are naturally relatively unmolested by arthropod pests. Nonetheless, there are 24 insect taxa known to be pest (organism)s in North America,

1890-648: The leaves. Significant production of highbush blueberries occurs in British Columbia , Maryland , Western Oregon , Michigan , New Jersey , North Carolina , and Washington . The production of southern highbush varieties occurs in California, as varieties originating from University of Florida , Connecticut , New Hampshire , North Carolina State University and Maine have been introduced. Peru , Spain, and Mexico also have significant production, as of 2018 (see Production). In 2018, Oregon produced

1944-412: The middle of the growing season: fruiting times are affected by local conditions such as climate, altitude and latitude , so the time of harvest in the northern hemisphere can vary from May to August. Commercially offered blueberries are usually from species that naturally occur only in eastern and north-central North America . Other sections in the genus are native to other parts of the world, including

1998-535: The most common cultivated species is V. corymbosum , the northern highbush blueberry . Hybrids of this with other Vaccinium species adapted to southern U.S. climates are known collectively as southern highbush blueberries. Highbush blueberries were first cultivated in New Jersey around the beginning of the 20th century. So-called "wild" (lowbush) blueberries, smaller than cultivated highbush ones, have intense color. V. angustifolium (lowbush blueberry)

2052-409: The most common. DDT began to be used in blueberry soon after its discovery in 1939, and a few years later in the mid-1940s research began into its use in North America. Because "wild" is a marketing term generally used for all low-bush blueberries, it is not an indication that such blueberries are free from pesticides. Insecticide modes of action must be varied to avoid encouraging resistance in

2106-522: The most cultivated blueberries, recording 59 million kilograms (131 million pounds), an amount slightly exceeding the production by Washington . In descending order of production volume for 2017, other major producers were Georgia , Michigan , New Jersey , California, and North Carolina . Hammonton, New Jersey , claims to be the "Blueberry Capital of the World", with over 80% of New Jersey's cultivated blueberries coming from this town. Every year

2160-445: The planet Jupiter . Perennial plants can be short-lived (only a few years) or long-lived. They include a wide assortment of plant groups from non-flowering plants like ferns and liverworts to highly diverse flowering plants like orchids , grasses , and woody plants . Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous ; these species may live for many years before they flower. For example,

2214-509: The regions of Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean (where a popular name for inhabitants of the regions is bleuets , or "blueberries") and Côte-Nord , which together provide 40% of Québec's total provincial production. This wild blueberry commerce benefits from vertical integration of growing, processing, frozen storage, marketing and transportation within relatively small regions of the province. On average, 80% of Québec wild blueberries are harvested on farms (21 million kilograms (23,000 short tons)),

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2268-580: The remaining 20% being harvested from public forests (5 million kilograms (5,500 short tons)). Some 95% of the wild blueberry crop in Québec is frozen for export out of the province. Highbush blueberries were first introduced to Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands in the 1930s, and have since been spread to numerous other countries of Europe. V. corymbosum only began to be cultivated in Romania in

2322-465: The seed yield of perennial species, which could result in the creation of new perennial grain crops. Some examples of new perennial crops being developed are perennial rice and intermediate wheatgrass . A perennial rice developed in 2018, was reported in 2023, to have provided a similar yield to replanted annual rice when evaluated over eight consecutive harvests. Perennial plants dominate many natural ecosystems on land and in fresh water, with only

2376-405: The soil, microorganisms), a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings, or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/ subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because their above-ground biomass does not survive the winter. There

2430-771: The southern Patagonian valleys", according to the report. In the Bureau of International Labor Affairs report of 2014 on child labor and forced labor , blueberries were listed among the goods produced in such working conditions in Argentina. As of 2018 V. corymbosum remains relatively unmolested by pests and diseases in Romania, with Phytophthora cinnamomi , Monilinia vaccinii-corymbosi , Botryosphaeria corticis , Godronia cassandrae , Phomopsis sp., Botrytis cinerea , Naohidemyces vaccinii , Microsphaera penicillata var. vaccinii , and various viruses being

2484-662: The species with small, pea-size berries growing on low-level bushes are known as "lowbush blueberries" (synonymous with "wild"), while the species with larger berries growing on taller, cultivated bushes are known as "highbush blueberries". Canada is the leading producer of lowbush blueberries, while the United States produces some 40% of the world's supply of highbush blueberries. Many species of blueberries grow wild in North America, including Vaccinium myrtilloides , V. angustifolium and V. corymbosum , which grow on forest floors or near swamps . Wild blueberries reproduce by cross pollination , with each seed producing

2538-569: The states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Blueberries were first introduced to Australia in the 1950s, but the effort was unsuccessful. In the early 1970s, the Victorian Department of Agriculture imported seed from the U.S. and a selection trial was started. This work was continued into the mid-1970s when the Australian Blueberry Growers' Association was formed. In

2592-1267: The stems of the plant, with each floral bud giving rise to 5–6 flowers and the eventual fruit. Wild blueberries prefer an acidic soil between 4.2 and 5.2 pH and only moderate amounts of moisture. They have a hardy cold tolerance in their range in Canada and northern United States. Fruit productivity of lowbush blueberries varies by the degree of pollination, genetics of the clone, soil fertility, water availability, insect infestation, plant diseases and local growing conditions. Wild (lowbush) blueberries have an average mature weight of 0.3 grams ( 1 ⁄ 128  oz). Lowbush blueberries, sometimes called "wild blueberries", are generally not planted by farmers, but rather are managed on berry fields called "barrens". Cultivated highbush blueberries prefer sandy or loam soils, having shallow root systems that benefit from mulch and fertilizer . The leaves of highbush blueberries can be either deciduous or evergreen , ovate to lanceolate , and 1–8 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 3 + 1 ⁄ 4  in) long and 0.5–3.5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 + 3 ⁄ 8  in) broad. The flowers are bell-shaped, white, pale pink or red, sometimes tinged greenish. The fruit

2646-431: The stems. Herbaceous perennials from temperate and alpine regions of the world can tolerate the cold during winter. Perennial plants may remain dormant for long periods and then recommence growth and reproduction when the environment is more suitable, while most annual plants complete their life cycle during one growing period, and biennials have two growing periods. The meristem of perennial plants communicates with

2700-509: The total North American wild/lowbush annual production with New Brunswick having the largest in 2015, an amount expanding in 2016. Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and Québec are also major producers. Nova Scotia recognizes the wild blueberry as its official provincial berry, with the town of Oxford, Nova Scotia known as the Wild Blueberry Capital of Canada. Québec is a major producer of wild blueberries, especially in

2754-419: The town hosts a large festival, which draws thousands of people to celebrate the fruit. Maine is known for its wild blueberries, but the state's lowbush (wild) and highbush blueberries combined account for 10% of all blueberries grown in North America. Some 44,000 hectares (110,000 acres) are farmed, but only half of this acreage is harvested each year due to variations in pruning practices. The wild blueberry

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2808-602: The worst in New Jersey, Michigan , Maine , and Eastern Canada being Rhagoletis mendax . Secondary but still important are Acrobasis vaccinii , Grapholita packardi , and Conotrachelus nenuphar . These four are the most common targets for development of IPM practices. as of 2019, IPM research has also taken an interest in Drosophila suzukii and arthropods like aphids (that vector diseases such as scorch virus and shoestring virus ) and cicadellids (vectoring

2862-439: The year. Deciduous perennials include herbaceous and woody plants; herbaceous plants have stems that lack hard, fibrous growth, while woody plants have stems with buds that survive above ground during dormancy. Some perennials are semi-deciduous, meaning they lose some of their leaves in either winter or summer. Deciduous perennials shed their leaves when growing conditions are no longer suitable for photosynthesis, such as when it

2916-459: Was 1.1 million tonnes , led by the United States with 32% of global production, Peru with 20%, and Canada with 13%. In 2019, Canada was the largest producer of wild blueberries, mainly in Quebec and the Atlantic provinces , but Canadian production of wild blueberries decreased since 2017 by transitioning to the more profitable cultivated highbush blueberries. British Columbia produced 93% of

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