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76-472: The process is obsolete, largely displaced by the diazo-based whiteprint process, and later by large-format xerographic photocopiers. It has almost entirely been superseded by digital computer-aided construction drawings. The term blueprint continues to be used informally to refer to any floor plan (and by analogy, any type of plan ). Practising engineers, architects, and drafters often call them "drawings", "prints", or "plans". The blueprint process

152-452: A drill machine might contain a magazine with a variety of drill bits for producing holes of various sizes. Previously, either machine operators would usually have to manually change the bit or move the work piece to another station to perform these different operations. The next logical step was to combine several different machine tools together, all under computer control. These are known as machining centers , and have dramatically changed

228-608: A "ball and socket" concave-concave and convex-convex fit, as this mechanical fit, like two perfect planes, can slide over each other and reveal no high spots. The rubbing and marking are repeated after rotating 2 relative to 1 by 90 degrees to eliminate concave-convex "potato-chip" curvature. Next, plate number 3 is compared and scraped to conform to plate number 1 in the same two trials. In this manner plates number 2 and 3 would be identical. Next plates number 2 and 3 would be checked against each other to determine what condition existed, either both plates were "balls" or "sockets" or "chips" or

304-412: A blueline copy can fade over months (indoors) or just days (outdoors), becoming illegible. This fading process thus requires reduplication of the original documents every few months in a typical office for any project using bluelines. Hence, blueline drawings that are used as engineering working copy prints have to be protected when not in use by storing them in flat files in the dark. Incandescent lighting

380-421: A combination. These would then be scraped until no high spots existed and then compared to plate number 1. Repeating this process of comparing and scraping the three plates could produce plane surfaces accurate to within millionths of an inch (the thickness of the marking medium). The traditional method of producing the surface gages used an abrasive powder rubbed between the plates to remove the high spots, but it

456-542: A cool, dry room often retain the majority of their lines and can be subsequently scanned into a digital format for various purposes. The blueline print process was largely abandoned within the architectural/engineering community around the early 2000s. Contributing factors were the development of computer-aided drafting and printing, the speed of machine printing, and the introduction of larger xerographic machines or large format printers from companies like Ricoh and Xerox. The cost of blueline production materials and equipment,

532-561: A drawing print that lasts only a few months is sufficient for many purposes. Two components underpin diazo printing: In a related sense, the process relies on two properties of diazonium compounds: In a variety of combinations and strengths, these two chemicals are mixed in water and coated onto paper . The resulting coating is then dried yielding the specially treated paper commercially sold as Diazo paper. This solution can also be applied to polyester film or to vellum . The process starts with original documents that have been created on

608-515: A handful of major industries that most spurred machine tool development. In order of historical emergence, they have been firearms (small arms and artillery ); clocks ; textile machinery; steam engines ( stationary , marine , rail , and otherwise ) (the story of how Watt 's need for an accurate cylinder spurred Boulton's boring machine is discussed by Roe ); sewing machines ; bicycles ; automobiles ; and aircraft . Others could be included in this list as well, but they tend to be connected with

684-495: A lathe with direct mechanical control of the cutting tool's path are of a screw-cutting lathe dating to about 1483. This lathe "produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest". The mechanical toolpath guidance grew out of various root concepts: Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams and Jacquard looms . The convergence of programmable mechanical control with machine tool toolpath control

760-468: A machine tool as "any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal". The narrowest colloquial sense of the term reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words, the many kinds of [conventional] machining and grinding . These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf . However, economists use a slightly broader sense that also includes metal deformation of other types that squeeze

836-400: A machine tool as well as expressing its fundamental structure in the following way: imagine a lathe spending a cylinder on a horizontal axis with a tool ready to cut a face on that cylinder in some preparatory moment. What the operator of such a lathe would do is lock the x-axis on the carriage of the lathe establishing a new vector condition with a zero in the x slide position for the tool. Then

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912-418: A machine tool is, is a very simple answer but it is highly technical and is unrelated to the history of machine tools. Preceding, there is an answer for what machine tools are. We may consider what they do also. Machine tools produce finished surfaces. They may produce any finish from an arbitrary degree of very rough work to a specular optical grade finish the improvement of which is moot. Machine tools produce

988-431: A machine tool, toolpaths that no human muscle could constrain can be constrained; and toolpaths that are technically possible with freehand methods, but would require tremendous time and skill to execute, can instead be executed quickly and easily, even by people with little freehand talent (because the machine takes care of it). The latter aspect of machine tools is often referred to by historians of bytechnology as "building

1064-403: A preparatory moment before a tool makes contact with a work piece, or maybe an engaged moment during which contact with work and tool requires an input of rather large amounts of power to get work done which is why machine tools are large and heavy and stiff. Since what these vectors describe our instant moments of degrees of freedom the vector structure is capable of expressing the changing mode of

1140-454: A stable blue or black dye. Where the India ink blocks the ultra-violet light the coating does not convert and remains soluble. The image can be seen forming. When a strong image is seen the frame is brought indoors to stop the process. The unconverted coating is washed away, and the paper is then dried. The result is a copy of the original image with the clear background area rendered dark blue and

1216-431: A survey by market research firm Gardner Research. The largest producer of machine tools was China with $ 23.8 billion of production followed by Germany and Japan at neck and neck with $ 12.9 billion and $ 12.88 billion respectively. South Korea and Italy rounded out the top 5 producers with revenue of $ 5.6 billion and $ 5 billion respectively. . A biography of a machine tool builder that also contains some general history of

1292-432: A time, due to the build-up of ammonia fumes, even with ventilation fans in the duplication room. A slight delay of perhaps five minutes is often required for the fumes to subside enough to permit making additional copies if no ventilation exists. Many blueprint shops ran ventilation ducts from the machines to the outside. Smaller and mid-size blueprint machines were often outfitted with neutralizers which absorbed some of

1368-491: A translucent medium. Such media include polyester films, vellums , linens, and translucent bond papers (bonds). Any medium that allows some light to pass through typically works as a master; the desired durability of the master determines the choice. Depending on the thickness and type of the master, the intensity of the UV exposure light is adjusted according to media types commonly used for masters in any particular shop. Similarly,

1444-571: A variety of sources. Human and animal power (via cranks , treadles , treadmills , or treadwheels ) were used in the past, as was water power (via water wheel ); however, following the development of high-pressure steam engines in the mid 19th century, factories increasingly used steam power. Factories also used hydraulic and pneumatic power. Many small workshops continued to use water, human and animal power until electrification after 1900. Today most machine tools are powered by electricity; hydraulic and pneumatic power are sometimes used, but this

1520-465: A white background. The drawings are also called blue-lines or bluelines. Other comparable dye-based prints were known as blacklines. Diazo prints remained in use until they were replaced by xerographic print processes. Xerography is standard copy machine technology using toner on copy paper . When large size xerography machines became available, c. 1975, they replaced the older printing methods. As computer-aided design techniques came into use,

1596-410: Is also problematic, as machine tools can be powered by people if appropriately set up, such as with a treadle (for a lathe ) or a hand lever (for a shaper ). Hand-powered shapers are clearly "the 'same thing' as shapers with electric motors except smaller", and it is trivial to power a micro lathe with a hand-cranked belt pulley instead of an electric motor. Thus one can question whether power source

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1672-472: Is based on a photosensitive ferric compound. The best known is a process using ammonium ferric citrate and potassium ferricyanide . The paper is impregnated with a solution of ammonium ferric citrate and dried. When the paper is illuminated, a photoreaction turns the trivalent ferric iron into divalent ferrous iron. The image is then developed using a solution of potassium ferricyanide forming insoluble ferroferricyanide ( Prussian blue or Turnbull's blue ) with

1748-435: Is concentrated in about 10 countries worldwide: China, Japan, Germany, Italy, South Korea, Taiwan, Switzerland, US, Austria, Spain and a few others. Machine tool innovation continues in several public and private research centers worldwide. [A]ll the turning of the iron for the cotton machinery built by Mr. Slater was done with hand chisels or tools in lathes turned by cranks with hand power. Machine tools can be powered from

1824-402: Is placed on top of the sensitized paper, and both are clamped under glass, in a daylight exposure frame, which is similar to a picture frame. The frame is put out into daylight, requiring a minute or two under a bright sun, or about ten minutes under an overcast sky to complete the exposure. Where ultra-violet light is transmitted through the tracing paper, the light-sensitive coating converts to

1900-664: Is truly a key distinguishing concept; but for economics purposes, the NBER's definition made sense, because most of the commercial value of the existence of machine tools comes about via those that are powered by electricity, hydraulics, and so on. Such are the vagaries of natural language and controlled vocabulary , both of which have their places in the business world. Forerunners of machine tools included bow drills and potter's wheels , which had existed in ancient Egypt prior to 2500 BC, and lathes , known to have existed in multiple regions of Europe since at least 1000 to 500 BC. But it

1976-427: Is uncommon. Machine tools can be operated manually, or under automatic control. Early machines used flywheels to stabilize their motion and had complex systems of gears and levers to control the machine and the piece being worked on. Soon after World War II, the numerical control (NC) machine was developed. NC machines used a series of numbers punched on paper tape or punched cards to control their motion. In

2052-641: The Industrial Revolution in England in the middle to late 1700s. Until that time, machinery was made mostly from wood, often including gearing and shafts. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron . Cast iron could be cast in molds for larger parts, such as engine cylinders and gears, but was difficult to work with a file and could not be hammered. Red hot wrought iron could be hammered into shapes. Room temperature wrought iron

2128-412: The machine tools used to make the part. In the case of construction plans, such as road work or erecting a building, the supervising workers may view the "blueprints" directly on displays, rather than using printed paper sheets. These displays include mobile devices, such as smartphones or tablets . Software allows users to view and annotate electronic drawing files. Construction crews use software in

2204-429: The mass noun "machinery" encompasses them, but sometimes it is used to imply only those machines that are being excluded from the definition of "machine tool". This is why the machines in a food-processing plant, such as conveyors, mixers, vessels, dividers, and so on, may be labeled "machinery", while the machines in the factory's tool and die department are instead called "machine tools" in contradistinction. Regarding

2280-424: The workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus, the relative movement between the workpiece and the cutting tool (which is called the toolpath ) is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent, rather than being entirely "offhand" or " freehand ". It is a power-driven metal cutting machine which assists in managing the needed relative motion between cutting tool and

2356-419: The 18th and 19th centuries, and even in many cases in the 20th, the builders of machine tools tended to be the same people who would then use them to produce the end products (manufactured goods). However, from these roots also evolved an industry of machine tool builders as we define them today, meaning people who specialize in building machine tools for sale to others. Historians of machine tools often focus on

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2432-496: The 1930s NBER definition quoted above, one could argue that its specificity to metal is obsolete, as it is quite common today for particular lathes, milling machines, and machining centers (definitely machine tools) to work exclusively on plastic cutting jobs throughout their whole working lifespan. Thus the NBER definition above could be expanded to say "which employs a tool to work on metal or other materials of high hardness ". And its specificity to "operating by other than hand power"

2508-442: The 1960s, computers were added to give even more flexibility to the process. Such machines became known as computerized numerical control (CNC) machines . NC and CNC machines could precisely repeat sequences over and over, and could produce much more complex pieces than even the most skilled tool operators. Before long, the machines could automatically change the specific cutting and shaping tools that were being used. For example,

2584-722: The 1980s; he was reflecting the sense of the term used by Houdaille itself and other firms in the industry. Many reports on machine tool export and import and similar economic topics use this broader definition. The colloquial sense implying [conventional] metal cutting is also growing obsolete because of changing technology over the decades. The many more recently developed processes labeled "machining", such as electrical discharge machining , electrochemical machining , electron beam machining , photochemical machining , and ultrasonic machining , or even plasma cutting and water jet cutting , are often performed by machines that could most logically be called machine tools. In addition, some of

2660-553: The abrasive material between the plates which would produce uneven removal of material from the plates. With the creation of master plane gages of such high accuracy, all critical components of machine tools (i.e., guiding surfaces such as machine ways) could then be compared against them and scraped to the desired accuracy. The first machine tools offered for sale (i.e., commercially available) were constructed by Matthew Murray in England around 1800. Others, such as Henry Maudslay , James Nasmyth , and Joseph Whitworth , soon followed

2736-548: The accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth . That Maudslay had established the manufacture and use of master plane gages in his shop (Maudslay & Field) located on Westminster Road south of the Thames River in London about 1809, was attested to by James Nasmyth who was employed by Maudslay in 1829 and Nasmyth documented their use in his autobiography. The process by which

2812-420: The ammonia for some time. If the lines are too light, it is also possible to run the blue line through the developing chamber once more, which often increases the contrast of the lines relative to the base media. Repeated lack of contrast and light prints is also a tip-off that the operator needs to adjust the speed or amount of ammonia. Sometimes both the master and the diazo print are inadvertently fed through

2888-412: The azodyes (couplers) react with the remaining diazonium salt and undergo a chemical reaction that results in the unexposed lines changing color from invisible (or yellow) to a visible dark color. The range of colors for these lines is usually blue or black, but sepia (a brownish hue) is also quite popular. When making multiple copies of an original no more than four or five copies can typically be made at

2964-591: The bar length standards of the 19th and early 20th centuries. American production of machine tools was a critical factor in the Allies' victory in World War II. Production of machine tools tripled in the United States in the war. No war was more industrialized than World War II, and it has been written that the war was won as much by machine shops as by machine guns. The production of machine tools

3040-415: The coal fire as readily as stamping license plates, and Matter-Subtracting might mean casually whittling a pencil point as readily as it might mean precision grinding the final form of a laser deposited turbine blade. A precise description of what a machine tool is and does in an instant moment is given by a 12 component vector relating the linear and rotational degrees of freedom of the single work piece and

3116-427: The concepts of accuracy and precision , efficiency , and productivity become important in understanding why the machine-constrained option adds value . Matter-Additive, Matter-Preserving, and Matter-Subtractive "Manufacturing" can proceed in sixteen ways: Firstly, the work may be held either in a hand, or a clamp; secondly, the tool may be held either in a hand, or a clamp; thirdly, the energy can come from either

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3192-554: The copy. Once this process is complete, the undeveloped image at the locations where the UV light could not penetrate can often be seen as very light yellow or white marks/lines on the diazo sheet. This completes the exposure phase. Next, the original is peeled from the diazo paper as the sandwich of master and diazo exits the machine, and the diazo sheet alone is fed into the developing chamber. Here, fumes of ammonium hydroxide create an extremely alkaline environment. Under these conditions,

3268-424: The definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools , simply provided a label for "tools that were machines instead of hand tools". Early lathes , those prior to the late medieval period, and modern woodworking lathes and potter's wheels may or may not fall under this definition, depending on how one views the headstock spindle itself; but the earliest historical records of

3344-399: The designs were printed directly using a computer printer or plotter . In most computer-aided design of parts to be machined, paper is avoided altogether, and the finished design is an image on the computer display. The computer-aided design program generates a computer numerical control sequence from the approved design. The sequence is a computer file which will control the operation of

3420-410: The determination of, for example, property boundaries, or who owns or is responsible for a boundary wall. Whiteprint#The diazo printing process Whiteprint describes a document reproduction produced by using the diazo chemical process. It is also known as the blue-line process since the result is blue lines on a white background. It is a contact printing process that accurately reproduces

3496-460: The developing chamber together. If this occurs, one simply peels the master from the diazo paper and runs the diazo sheet through the developer once more to fully develop the lines. Diazo printing was one of the most economical methods to reproduce large engineering and architectural drawings. A quirk of diazo blueline prints is that with continued exposure to ultraviolet light, either from natural sunlight or from typical office fluorescent lighting,

3572-417: The divalent iron. Excess ammonium ferric citrate and potassium ferricyanide are then washed away. The process is also known as cyanotype . This is a simple process for the reproduction of any light transmitting document. Engineers and architects drew their designs on cartridge paper ; these were then traced on to tracing paper using India ink for reproduction whenever needed. The tracing paper drawing

3648-459: The drawings, paintings, and sculptures of artists such as Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci , and of countless other talented people, show that human freehand toolpath has great potential. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity (constraining the toolpath despite thousands of newtons ( pounds ) of force fighting against the constraint), accuracy and precision , efficiency , and productivity . With

3724-403: The economical production of interchangeable parts . Many historians of technology consider that true machine tools were born when the toolpath first became guided by the machine itself in some way, at least to some extent, so that direct, freehand human guidance of the toolpath (with hands, feet, or mouth) was no longer the only guidance used in the cutting or forming process. In this view of

3800-469: The fact that the prints themselves faded in sunlight, and the need to use the pungent chemical ammonia as a developer sped up its replacement. Machine tools A machine tool is a machine for handling or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring , grinding , shearing, or other forms of deformations. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining

3876-542: The field to edit, share, and view blueprint documents in real-time. Many of the original paper blueprints are archived since they are still in use. In many situations their conversion to digital form is prohibitively expensive. Most buildings and roads constructed before c. 1990 will only have paper blueprints, not digital. These originals have significant importance to the repair and alteration of constructions still in use, e.g. bridges, buildings, sewer systems, roads, railroads, etc., and sometimes in legal matters concerning

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3952-585: The hand(s) holding the tool and/or the work, or from some external source, including for examples a foot treadle by the same worker, or a motor, without limitation; and finally, the control can come from either the hand(s) holding the tool and/or the work, or from some other source, including computer numerical control. With two choices for each of four parameters, the types are enumerated to sixteen types of Manufacturing, where Matter-Additive might mean painting on canvas as readily as it might mean 3D printing under computer control, Matter-Preserving might mean forging at

4028-556: The image reproduced as a white line. This process has several features: Introduction of the blueprint process eliminated the expense of photolithographic reproduction or of hand-tracing of original drawings. By the later 1890s in American architectural offices, a blueprint was one-tenth the cost of a hand-traced reproduction. The blueprint process is still used for special artistic and photographic effects, on paper and fabrics. Various base materials have been used for blueprints. Paper

4104-581: The job that changes the size and shape of the job material. The precise definition of the term machine tool varies among users, as discussed below . While all machine tools are "machines that help people to make things", not all factory machines are machine tools. Today machine tools are typically powered other than by the human muscle (e.g., electrically, hydraulically, or via line shaft ), used to make manufactured parts (components) in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation. With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled

4180-407: The machine by rotating rubber friction wheels. There are two chambers inside the machine. The first is the exposure area, where the sandwich of the two sheets (the master and the diazo paper) passes in front of an ultraviolet lamp. Ultraviolet light penetrates the original and neutralizes the light-sensitive diazonium salt wherever there is no image on the master. These areas become the white areas on

4256-537: The master plane gages were produced dates back to antiquity but was refined to an unprecedented degree in the Maudslay shop. The process begins with three square plates each given an identification (ex., 1,2 and 3). The first step is to rub plates 1 and 2 together with a marking medium (called bluing today) revealing the high spots which would be removed by hand scraping with a steel scraper, until no irregularities were visible. This would not produce true plane surfaces but

4332-415: The metal into shape without cutting off swarf, such as rolling, stamping with dies , shearing, swaging , riveting , and others. Thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools. For example, this is the breadth of definition used by Max Holland in his history of Burgmaster and Houdaille , which is also a history of the machine tool industry in general from the 1940s through

4408-445: The newly developed additive manufacturing processes, which are not about cutting away material but rather about adding it, are done by machines that are likely to end up labeled, in some cases, as machine tools. In fact, machine tool builders are already developing machines that include both subtractive and additive manufacturing in one work envelope, and retrofits of existing machines are underway. The natural language use of

4484-406: The operator would unlock the y-axis on the cross slide of the lathe, assuming that our examples were equipped with that, and then the operator would apply some method of traversing the facing tool across the face of the cylinder being cut and a depth combined with the rotational speed selected which engages cutting ability within the power of range of the motor powering the lathe. So the answer to what

4560-470: The original in size, but cannot reproduce continuous tones or colors. The light sensitivity of the chemicals used was known in the 1890s and several related printing processes were patented at that time. Whiteprinting replaced the blueprint process for reproducing architectural and engineering drawings because the process was simpler and involved fewer toxic chemicals. A blue-line print is not permanent and will fade if exposed to light for weeks or months, but

4636-445: The path of expanding their entrepreneurship from manufactured end products and millwright work into the realm of building machine tools for sale. Important early machine tools included the slide rest lathe, screw-cutting lathe , turret lathe , milling machine , pattern tracing lathe, shaper , and metal planer , which were all in use before 1840. With these machine tools the decades-old objective of producing interchangeable parts

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4712-414: The root causes already listed. For example, rolling-element bearings are an industry of themselves, but this industry's main drivers of development were the vehicles already listed—trains, bicycles, automobiles, and aircraft; and other industries, such as tractors, farm implements, and tanks, borrowed heavily from those same parent industries. Machine tools filled a need created by textile machinery during

4788-408: The single tool contacting that work piece in any machine arbitrarily and in order to visualize this vector it makes sense to arrange it in four rows of three columns with labels x y and z on the columns and labels spin and move on the rows, with those two labels repeated one more time to make a total of four rows so that the first row might be labeled spin work, the second row might be labeled move work,

4864-413: The skill into the tool", in contrast to the toolpath-constraining skill being in the person who wields the tool. As an example, it is physically possible to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is economically practical to make them only with machine tools. In the 1930s, the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) referenced the definition of

4940-413: The speed control (for setting the speed at which the sheets are pulled through the machine) is likewise typically pre-marked in any particular shop, having been optimized based on trial runs. The original document is laid on top of the chemically-coated side of a sheet of diazo paper, which is retrieved from a light-protected flat file, and the two sheets are fed into the diazo duplicator, being pulled into

5016-437: The surfaces comprising the features of machine parts by removing chips. These chips may be very rough or even as fine as dust. Every machine tools supports its removal process with a stiff, redundant and so vibration resisting structure because each chip is removed in a semi a synchronous way, creating multiple opportunities for vibration to interfere with precision. Humans are generally quite talented in their freehand movements;

5092-404: The terms varies, with subtle connotative boundaries. Many speakers resist using the term "machine tool" to refer to woodworking machinery (joiners, table saws, routing stations, and so on), but it is difficult to maintain any true logical dividing line, and therefore many speakers accept a broad definition. It is common to hear machinists refer to their machine tools simply as "machines". Usually

5168-413: The third row might be labeled spin tool, and the fourth row might be labeled move tool although the position of the labels is arbitrary which is to say there is no agreement in the literature of mechanical engineering on what order these labels should be but there are 12 degrees of freedom in a machine tool. That said it is important to remember that this is in an instant moment and that instant moment may be

5244-438: The way parts are made. Examples of machine tools are: When fabricating or shaping parts, several techniques are used to remove unwanted metal. Among these are: Other techniques are used to add desired material. Devices that fabricate components by selective addition of material are called rapid prototyping machines. The worldwide market for machine tools was approximately $ 81 billion in production in 2014 according to

5320-579: Was Whitworth who contributed the refinement of replacing the grinding with hand scraping. Sometime after 1825, Whitworth went to work for Maudslay and it was there that Whitworth perfected the hand scraping of master surface plane gages. In his paper presented to the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Glasgow in 1840, Whitworth pointed out the inherent inaccuracy of grinding due to no control and thus unequal distribution of

5396-505: Was a common choice; for more durable prints linen was sometimes used, but with time, the linen prints would shrink slightly. To combat this problem, printing on imitation vellum and, later, polyester film ( Mylar ) was implemented. Traditional blueprints became obsolete when less expensive printing methods and digital displays became available. In the early 1940s, cyanotype blueprint began to be supplanted by diazo prints , also known as whiteprints . This technique produces blue lines on

5472-428: Was delayed many decades, in part because the programmable control methods of musical boxes and looms lacked the rigidity for machine tool toolpaths. Later, electromechanical solutions (such as servos ) and soon electronic solutions (including computers ) were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control . When considering the difference between freehand toolpaths and machine-constrained toolpaths,

5548-429: Was finally realized. An important early example of something now taken for granted was the standardization of screw fasteners such as nuts and bolts. Before about the beginning of the 19th century, these were used in pairs, and even screws of the same machine were generally not interchangeable. Methods were developed to cut screw thread to a greater precision than that of the feed screw in the lathe being used. This led to

5624-529: Was not until the later Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment that the modern concept of a machine tool—a class of machines used as tools in the making of metal parts, and incorporating machine-guided toolpath—began to evolve. Clockmakers of the Middle Ages and renaissance men such as Leonardo da Vinci helped expand humans' technological milieu toward the preconditions for industrial machine tools. During

5700-426: Was often used in areas where blueline engineering prints needed to be posted on a wall for long periods to hinder rapid fading. Improperly exposed bluelines are more likely to fade at an increased rate since the chemical reaction in the ammonia phase continues until the process is completed. But also properly exposed bluelines should not be exposed to the elements, and bluelines kept in flat files or hanging on racks in

5776-427: Was worked with a file and chisel and could be made into gears and other complex parts; however, hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. James Watt was unable to have an accurately bored cylinder for his first steam engine, trying for several years until John Wilkinson invented a suitable boring machine in 1774, boring Boulton & Watt's first commercial engine in 1776. The advance in

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