88-467: Bluestocking (also spaced blue-stocking or blue stockings ) is a derogatory term for an educated, intellectual woman, originally a member of the 18th-century Blue Stockings Society from England led by the hostess and critic Elizabeth Montagu (1718–1800), the "Queen of the Blues", including Elizabeth Vesey (1715–1791), Hester Chapone (1727–1801) and the classicist Elizabeth Carter (1717–1806). In
176-493: A pseudo-scientific justification for the crimes of the state . In "An Interview with Milton Friedman" (1974), the American economist Milton Friedman said that businessmen and intellectuals are enemies of capitalism : most intellectuals believed in socialism while businessmen expected economic privileges. In his essay "Why Do Intellectuals Oppose Capitalism?" (1998), the American libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick of
264-469: A "jet black" first baseman whose presence meant Walker was not the college's first black baseball player—with organized clubs that engaged in intense matchups. Walker gained stardom and was mentioned in the school newspaper, The Oberlin Review , for his ball-handling and ability to hit long home runs . In 1881, Oberlin lifted their ban on off-campus competition. Walker, joined by Weldy who enrolled in
352-458: A $ 2,000 contract as a major leaguer. Though he could no longer negotiate such a salary, his skills were still highly attractive to teams: Walker returned to Waterbury in 1886 when the team joined the more competitive Eastern League . Despite a lackluster season for Waterbury, Walker was offered a position with the defending champion Newark Little Giants , an International League team. Together, with pitcher George Stovey , Walker formed half of
440-454: A .251 batting average, he became revered for his play behind the plate and his durability during an era where catchers wore little to no protective equipment and injuries were frequent. The Blue Stockings' ball boy recalled Walker "occasionally wore ordinary lambskin gloves with the fingers slit and slightly padded in the palm; more often he caught barehanded". Nonetheless, he played in 60 of Toledo's 84 games during their championship season. At
528-470: A concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by either rejecting, producing or extending an ideology , and by defending a system of values . The term "man of letters" derives from the French term belletrist or homme de lettres but is not synonymous with "an academic". A "man of letters" was a literate man, able to read and write, and thus highly valued in the upper strata of society in
616-475: A creative outlet and political platform for Japanese feminists even while it faced public outcry and government censorship. The Toledo Blue Stockings was a major league baseball team in Toledo, Ohio, from 1883 to 1885. Historically, the team is best known for being the only major league team with black players ( Moses Fleetwood Walker and his brother, Weldy Walker ) prior to Jackie Robinson 's appearance with
704-471: A major league ballplayer was an away game against the Louisville Eclipse on May 1, 1884; he went hitless in three at-bats and committed four errors in a 5–1 loss. Throughout the 1884 season, Walker regularly caught for ace pitcher Tony Mullane . Mullane, who described the rookie ballplayer as "the best catcher I ever worked with," purposefully threw pitches that were not signaled just to cross up
792-562: A plural noun to refer, usually with a figurative or ironic intent, to a collection of people who might be identified in terms of their intellectual inclinations or pretensions." In early 19th-century Britain, Samuel Taylor Coleridge coined the term clerisy , the intellectual class responsible for upholding and maintaining the national culture, the secular equivalent of the Anglican clergy. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose
880-658: A position as a mail clerk, but returned to baseball in 1885, playing in the Western League for 18 games. For the second half of 1885, he joined the baseball club in Waterbury for 10 games. When the season ended, Walker reunited with Weldy in Cleveland to assume the proprietorship of the LeGrande House, an opera theater and hotel. According to Zang, Walker could afford the business venture after commanding
968-443: A sanctuary for runaway slaves since 1815. Its population included a large Quaker community and a unique collective of former Virginian slaves. Walker's parents, Moses W. Walker and Caroline O'Harra, were both biracial. According to Walker's biographer David W. Zang, his father came to Ohio from Pennsylvania, likely a beneficiary of Quaker patronage, and married O'Harra, who was a native of the state, on June 11, 1843. When Walker
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#17327802732571056-487: A similar connotation. The term later developed negative implications and is now often used in a derogatory manner. The reference to blue stockings may arise from the time when woollen worsted stockings were informal dress, in contrast to formal, fashionable black silk stockings. The most frequent such reference is to a man, Benjamin Stillingfleet , who reportedly lacked the formal black stockings, yet participated in
1144-403: A social class, Jean-Paul Sartre said that intellectuals are the moral conscience of their age; that their moral and ethical responsibilities are to observe the socio-political moment, and to freely speak to their society, in accordance with their consciences. The British historian Norman Stone said that the intellectual social class misunderstand the reality of society and so are doomed to
1232-403: A status group they must be autonomous in order to be credible as intellectuals: It is relatively easy to demonstrate autonomy, if you come from a wealthy or [an] aristocratic background. You simply need to disown your status and champion the poor and [the] downtrodden [...]. [A]utonomy is much harder to demonstrate if you come from a poor or proletarian background [...], [thus] calls to join
1320-528: A successful businessman and inventor. As an advocate of black nationalism , Walker also jointly edited a newspaper, The Equator , with his brother. He published a book, Our Home Colony (1908), to explore ideas about emigrating back to Africa . He died in 1924 at the age of 67. Moses Fleetwood Walker was born in 1856 in Mount Pleasant , a working-class town in Eastern Ohio that had served as
1408-534: A term which is sometimes applied today. The word intellectual is found in Indian scripture Mahabharata in the Bachelorette meeting (Swayamvara Sava) of Draupadi . Immediately after Arjuna and Raja-Maharaja (kings-emperors) came to the meeting, Nipuna Buddhijibina (perfect intellectuals) appeared at the meeting. In Imperial China in the period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were
1496-480: A time when literacy was rare. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term Belletrist(s) came to be applied to the literati : the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the Republic of Letters , which evolved into the salon , a social institution, usually run by a hostess, meant for the edification, education, and cultural refinement of the participants. In the late 19th century, when literacy
1584-460: A worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the literati , who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as
1672-633: A year later. Michigan's baseball club had been weakest behind the plate; the team had gone as far as to hire semi-professional catchers to fill the void. With Walker, the team performed well, finishing with a 10–3 record in 1882. He mostly hit second in the lineup and is credited with a .308 batting average (BA). During his time at Michigan, Walker was paid by the White Sewing Machine Company of Cleveland to play for their semi-professional ball club in August 1881. Walker's presence
1760-455: Is existentially -based", the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are "spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests". That intellectuals occur in each social class and throughout the right-wing , the centre and the left-wing of the political spectrum and that as a social class the "intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class " of their society. Addressing their role as
1848-517: Is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy . The Czech intellectual Václav Havel said that politics and intellectuals can be linked, but that moral responsibility for the intellectual's ideas, even when advocated by a politician, remains with the intellectual. Therefore, it is best to avoid utopian intellectuals who offer 'universal insights' to resolve the problems of political economy with public policies that might harm and that have harmed civil society; that intellectuals be mindful of
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#17327802732571936-518: Is how Chilean intellectuals worked to reestablish democracy within the right-wing , neoliberal governments of the military dictatorship of 1973–1990 , the Pinochet régime allowed professional opportunities for some liberal and left-wing social scientists to work as politicians and as consultants in effort to realize the theoretical economics of the Chicago Boys , but their access to power
2024-816: Is not present in Comenius's Latin text. The name may have been applied in the 15th century to the blue stockings worn by the members of the Compagnie della Calza in Venice , which then was adopted in Paris and London; in the 17th century to the Covenanters in Scotland , who wore unbleached woollen stockings, in contrast to the bleached or dyed stockings of the more affluent. In 1870 Henry D. Wheatley noted that Elizabeth Montagu 's coterie were named "blue stockings" after
2112-403: Is to communicate the complex and specialized knowledge of the scientist to the general public. He argued that intellectuals were attracted to socialism or social democracy because the socialists offered "broad visions; the spacious comprehension of the social order, as a whole, which a planned system promises" and that such broad-vision philosophies "succeeded in inspiring the imagination of
2200-533: The Scholar-officials ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination , and were often also skilled calligraphers or Confucian philosophers. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that: Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been
2288-659: The intelligentsia (1860s–1870s), who were the status class of white-collar workers. For Germany, the theologian Alister McGrath said that "the emergence of a socially alienated, theologically literate, antiestablishment lay intelligentsia is one of the more significant phenomena of the social history of Germany in the 1830s". An intellectual class in Europe was socially important, especially to self-styled intellectuals, whose participation in society's arts, politics, journalism, and education—of either nationalist , internationalist , or ethnic sentiment—constitute "vocation of
2376-549: The Blue Stockings Society . As Frances Burney, a Bluestocking, recounts the events, she reveals that Stillingfleet was invited to a literary meeting by Elizabeth Vesey but was told off because of his informal attire. Her response was "don’t mind dress! Come in your blue stockings!". The Blue Stockings Society was a literary society led by Elizabeth Montagu and others in the 1750s in England. Elizabeth Montagu
2464-641: The Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 . Bluestockings is the name of a volunteer-run and collectively owned radical bookstore, fair-trade cafe, and activist center located on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, New York City , which opened in 1999. "The Bluestocking" is the name of the yearbook of Mary Baldwin College , a traditionally all-women's school in Staunton, Virginia . "Blue Stocking"
2552-664: The Cato Institute argued that intellectuals become embittered leftists because their superior intellectual work, much rewarded at school and at university, are undervalued and underpaid in the capitalist market economy . Thus, intellectuals turn against capitalism despite enjoying more socioeconomic status than the average person. The economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book Intellectuals and Society (2010) that intellectuals, who are producers of knowledge, not material goods, tend to speak outside their own areas of expertise, and yet expect social and professional benefits from
2640-543: The Providence Grays around five years before Walker debuted for the Blue Stockings. Despite these findings, baseball historians still credit Walker with being the first in the major leagues to play openly as a black man. On the subject of White, John R. Husman wrote: "He played baseball and lived his life as a white man. If White, who was also of white blood, said he was white and he was not challenged, he
2728-645: The chungin (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie , composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the public-affairs discourse of society, in addition to an academic career. Regardless of their academic fields or professional expertise, public intellectuals address and respond to
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2816-655: The halo effect derived from possessing professional expertise. In relation to other professions, public intellectuals are socially detached from the negative and unintended consequences of public policy derived from their ideas. Sowell gives the example of Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), who advised the British government against national rearmament in the years before the Second World War . Moses Fleetwood Walker Moses Fleetwood Walker (October 7, 1856 – May 11, 1924), sometimes nicknamed Fleet Walker ,
2904-403: The intelligentsia , a status class organised either by ideology (e.g., conservatism , fascism , socialism , liberalism , reactionary , revolutionary , democratic , communism ), or by nationality (American intellectuals, French intellectuals, Ibero–American intellectuals, et al. ). The term intelligentsiya originated from Tsarist Russia ( c. 1860s –1870s), where it denotes
2992-471: The normative problems of society, and, as such, are expected to be impartial critics who can "rise above the partial preoccupation of one's own profession—and engage with the global issues of truth , judgment, and taste of the time". In Representations of the Intellectual (1994), Edward Saïd said that the "true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on
3080-481: The social stratum of those possessing intellectual formation (schooling, education), and who were Russian society's counterpart to the German Bildungsbürgertum and to the French bourgeoisie éclairée , the enlightened middle classes of those realms. In Marxist philosophy , the social class function of the intellectuals (the intelligentsia ) is to be the source of progressive ideas for
3168-470: The "Justin Gun". Fascinated, Walker designed and patented an outer casing in 1891 that remedied Justin's failure. The first of his four patented inventions, Walker invested in the design with hopes it would be in great demand, but the shell never garnered enough interest. On April 9, 1891, Walker was involved in an altercation outside a saloon with a group of four white men exchanging racial insults. Members of
3256-417: The "Who?", the "How?" and the "Why?" of the social, economic and political status quo —the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The Italian communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) developed Karl Marx 's conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere. That because "all knowledge
3344-423: The "educated representatives of the propertied classes", of "revolutionary socialist intellectuals", such as were Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels . The Hungarian Marxist philosopher György Lukács (1885–1971) identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers and peasants
3432-585: The 1884 season, Walker continued to deal with issues simply because of his race. One notable example came in September of 1884, when the Blue Stockings were preparing to face the Richmond Virginians. Richmond did not want to face Walker, so they penned a letter to the Blue Stockings manager, stating, "We hope you will listen to our words of warning, so there will be no trouble, and if you do not, there certainly will be." Walker wound up not playing in
3520-490: The 1884 season. Though research by the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) indicates William Edward White was the first African-American baseball player in the major leagues, Walker, unlike White (who passed as a white man and self-identified as such), was the first to be open about his black heritage, and to face the racial bigotry so prevalent in the late 19th century United States. His brother, Weldy , became
3608-570: The 20th century, the term intellectual acquired positive connotations of social prestige , derived from possessing intellect and intelligence , especially when the intellectual's activities exerted positive consequences in the public sphere and so increased the intellectual understanding of the public, by means of moral responsibility, altruism , and solidarity , without resorting to the manipulations of demagoguery , paternalism and incivility (condescension). The sociologist Frank Furedi said that "Intellectuals are not defined according to
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3696-507: The arts. At Oberlin, Walker proved himself to be an excellent student, especially in mechanics and rhetoric, but by his sophomore year, he was rarely attending classes. How Walker first came to play baseball is uncertain: according to Zang, the game was popular among Steubenville children, and while in Oberlin's preparatory program Walker became the prep team's catcher and leadoff hitter. Oberlin men played baseball as early as 1865 — including
3784-419: The blue worsted stockings worn by the naturalist Benjamin Stillingfleet . William Hazlitt said, "The bluestocking is the most odious character in society...she sinks wherever she is placed, like the yolk of an egg, to the bottom, and carries the filth with her". In Japan, a literary magazine Seitō (Bluestocking) was launched in 1911 under the leadership of Raichō Hiratsuka . It ran until 1916, providing
3872-585: The book Our Home Colony (1908). Regarded as "the most learned book a professional athlete ever wrote," Our Home Colony shared Walker's thesis on the victimization of the black race and a proposal for African-Americans to emigrate back to Africa . Ednah died on May 26, 1920. Widowed again, Walker sold the Opera House and managed the Temple Theater in Cleveland with Weldy. On May 11, 1924, Walker died of lobar pneumonia at 67 years of age. His body
3960-400: The catcher. Walker's year was plagued with injuries, limiting him to just 42 games in a 104-game season. For the season, he had a .263 BA, which was top three on his team, but Toledo finished eighth in the pennant race. The rest of the team was also hampered by numerous injuries: circumstances led to Walker's brother, Weldy, joining the Blue Stockings for six games in the outfield. Throughout
4048-499: The class of 1885, played on the baseball club's first inter-collegiate team. By Oberlin pitcher Harlan Burket's account, Walker's performance in the season finale persuaded the University of Michigan to recruit him to their own program. Transfer regulations at the time were generally informal and recruiting players from opposing teams was not unusual. Accompanying Walker was his pregnant girlfriend, Arbella Taylor, whom he married
4136-486: The core of the team's success, one sportswriter at Sporting Life pointed out, were Walker and pitcher Hank O'Day , which he considered "one of the most remarkable batteries in the country." Walker's entrance into professional baseball caused immediate friction in the league. Before he had the opportunity to appear in a game, the executive committee of the Northwestern League debated a motion proposed by
4224-489: The course of the 19th century, other variants of the already established adjective 'intellectual' as a noun appeared in English and in French, where in the 1890s the noun ( intellectuels ) formed from the adjective intellectuel appeared with higher frequency in the literature. Collini writes about this time that "[a]mong this cluster of linguistic experiments there occurred ... the occasional usage of 'intellectuals' as
4312-573: The delight of spectators in the courthouse. He returned to Steubenville to, again, work for the postal service, handling letters for the Cleveland and Pittsburgh Railroad. On June 12, 1895, Walker's wife Arabella died of cancer at 32 years old; he remarried three years later to Ednah Mason, another former Oberlin student. The same year, Walker was found guilty of mail robbery and was sentenced to one year in prison which he served in Miami County and Jefferson County Jail. After his release during
4400-471: The errors of logical fallacy , ideological stupidity, and poor planning hampered by ideology. In her memoirs, the Conservative politician Margaret Thatcher wrote that the anti-monarchical French Revolution (1789–1799) was "a utopian attempt to overthrow a traditional order [...] in the name of abstract ideas , formulated by vain intellectuals". The American academic Peter H. Smith describes
4488-709: The field for warm-ups. Louisville again protested and refused to resume play until Cleveland's third baseman volunteered to go behind the plate. In mid-1883, Walker left his studies at Michigan and was signed to his first professional baseball contract by William Voltz, manager of the Toledo Blue Stockings , a Northwestern League team. As a former sportswriter for the Cleveland Plain Dealer , Voltz watched Walker play for Oberlin; his signing reunited Walker with his former battery-mate Burket. Although Walker hit in decent numbers, recording
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#17327802732574576-555: The first African-American battery in organized baseball. Billed as the "Spanish battery" by fans, Stovey recorded 35 wins in the season, while Walker posted career highs in games played, fielding percentage , and BA. Walker followed Newark's manager Charlie Hackett to the Syracuse Stars in 1888. Although he slumped at the plate during his two years playing for the Stars, he was popular among Syracuse fans, so much so that Walker
4664-402: The following generation came Hester Lynch Piozzi (1741–1821), Hannah More (1745–1833) and Frances Burney (1752–1840). The term now more broadly applies to women who show interest in literary or intellectual matters. Until the late 18th century, the term had referred to learned people of both sexes. It was later applied primarily to intellectual women and the French equivalent bas bleu had
4752-767: The general public". This expresses a dichotomy, derived from Plato, between public knowledge and private knowledge, "civic culture" and "professional culture", the intellectual sphere of life and the life of ordinary people in society. In the United States, members of the intellectual status class have been demographically characterized as people who hold liberal -to- leftist political perspectives about guns-or-butter fiscal policy . In "The Intellectuals and Socialism" (1949), Friedrich Hayek wrote that "journalists, teachers, ministers, lecturers, publicists, radio commentators, writers of fiction, cartoonists, and artists" form an intellectual social class whose function
4840-417: The group, including bricklayer Patrick "Curly" Murray, approached Walker and reportedly threw a stone at his head, dazing him. Walker responded by fatally stabbing Murray with a pocket knife. A compliant Walker surrendered to police, claiming self-defense , but was charged with second-degree murder (lowered from first-degree murder). On June 3, 1891, Walker was found not guilty by an all-white jury, much to
4928-557: The intellectual". Moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities (the academy) being synonymous with intellectualism . In France, the Dreyfus affair (1894–1906), an identity crisis of antisemitic nationalism for the French Third Republic (1870–1940), marked the full emergence of the "intellectual in public life", especially Émile Zola , Octave Mirbeau and Anatole France directly addressing
5016-535: The intellectuals of Latin America as people from an identifiable social class, who have been conditioned by that common experience and thus are inclined to share a set of common assumptions (values and ethics); that ninety-four per cent of intellectuals come either from the middle class or from the upper class and that only six per cent come from the working class . Philosopher Steven Fuller said that because cultural capital confers power and social status as
5104-435: The intellectuals" to change and improve their societies. According to Hayek, intellectuals disproportionately support socialism for idealistic and utopian reasons that cannot be realized in practice. The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre noted that "the Intellectual is someone who meddles in what does not concern them" ( L'intellectuel est quelqu'un qui se mêle de ce qui ne le regarde pas ). Noam Chomsky expressed
5192-469: The jobs they do, but [by] the manner in which they act, the way they see themselves, and the [social and political] values that they uphold. According to Thomas Sowell , as a descriptive term of person, personality, and profession, the word intellectual identifies three traits: In Latin language , at least starting from the Carolingian Empire , intellectuals could be called litterati ,
5280-469: The margins of society". Public intellectuals usually arise from the educated élite of a society, although the North American usage of the term intellectual includes the university academics. The difference between intellectual and academic is participation in the realm of public affairs. Jürgen Habermas ' Structural Transformation of Public Sphere (1963) made significant contribution to
5368-515: The matter of French antisemitism to the public; thenceforward, "intellectual" became common, yet initially derogatory, usage; its French noun usage is attributed to Georges Clemenceau in 1898. Nevertheless, by 1930 the term "intellectual" passed from its earlier pejorative associations and restricted usages to a widely accepted term and it was because of the Dreyfus Affair that the term also acquired generally accepted use in English. In
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#17327802732575456-414: The matters of public policy , the public intellectual connects scholarly research to the practical matters of solving societal problems. The British sociologist Michael Burawoy , an exponent of public sociology , said that professional sociology has failed by giving insufficient attention to resolving social problems, and that a dialogue between the academic and the layman would bridge the gap. An example
5544-410: The notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private and public. Controversial, in the same year, was Ralf Dahrendorf 's definition: "As the court- jesters of modern society, all intellectuals have the duty to doubt everything that is obvious, to make relative all authority, to ask all those questions that no one else dares to ask". An intellectual usually
5632-570: The participation of academic public intellectuals in the public life of society is characterized by logically untidy and politically biased statements of the kind that would be unacceptable to academia. He concluded that there are few ideologically and politically independent public intellectuals, and disapproved public intellectuals who limit themselves to practical matters of public policy, and not with values or public philosophy , or public ethics , or public theology , nor with matters of moral and spiritual outrage. Socially, intellectuals constitute
5720-663: The public affairs of society. Consequently, being designated as a public intellectual is determined by the degree of influence of the designator's motivations , opinions, and options of action (social, political, ideological), and by affinity with the given thinker. After the failure of the large-scale May 68 movement in France, intellectuals within the country were often maligned for having specific areas of expertise while discussing general subjects like democracy. Intellectuals increasingly claimed to be within marginalized groups rather than their spokespeople, and centered their activism on
5808-612: The representative of the Peoria, Illinois club that would prohibit all colored ballplayers from entering the league. After intense arguments, the motion was dropped, allowing Walker to play. On August 10, 1883, in an exhibition against the Chicago White Stockings , Chicago's manager Cap Anson refused to play if Walker was in the lineup. In response, Charlie Morton , who replaced Voltz as Toledo's manager at mid-season, challenged Anson's ultimatum by not only warning him of
5896-522: The risk of forfeiting gate receipts, but also by starting Walker at right field. Anson is alleged to have said "We'll play this here game, but won't play never no more with the nigger in". The White Stockings won in extra innings , 7–6. The Blue Stockings' successful season in the Northwestern League prompted the team to transfer as a unit to the American Association , a major league organization, in 1884. Walker's first appearance as
5984-415: The second black athlete to do likewise later in the same year, also for the Toledo ball club. Walker played just one season, 42 games total, for Toledo before injuries entailed his release. Walker played in the minor leagues until 1889, and was the last African-American to participate on the major league level before Jackie Robinson broke baseball's color line in 1947. After his baseball career, he became
6072-475: The series anyway, due to a broken hand. At that time, it was revealed that the letter was fake, and was a racist prank signed by fake players. Toledo's team, under financial pressure at season's end, worked to relieve themselves of their expensive contracts. Not yet fully recovered from a rib injury sustained in July, Walker was released by the Blue Stockings on September 22, 1884. During the offseason, Walker took
6160-413: The social and cultural ties created with their words, insights and ideas; and should be heard as social critics of politics and power . The determining factor for a "thinker" (historian, philosopher, scientist, writer, artist) to be considered a public intellectual is the degree to which the individual is implicated and engaged with the vital reality of the contemporary world, i.e. participation in
6248-592: The social problems relevant to their areas of expertise (such as gender relations in the case of psychologists). A similar shift occurred in China after the Tiananmen Square Massacre from the "universal intellectual" (who plans better futures from within academia) to minjian ("grassroots") intellectuals, the latter group represented by such figures as Wang Xiaobo , social scientist Yu Jianrong , and Yanhuang Chunqiu editor Ding Dong ( 丁東 ). In
6336-399: The transformation of society: providing advice and counsel to the political leaders, interpreting the country's politics to the mass of the population (urban workers and peasants). In the pamphlet What Is to Be Done? (1902), Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) said that vanguard-party revolution required the participation of the intellectuals to explain the complexities of socialist ideology to
6424-765: The turn of the century, Walker jointly owned the Union Hotel in Steubenville with Weldy and managed the Opera House, a movie theater in nearby Cadiz . As host to opera, live drama, vaudeville , and minstrel shows at the Opera House, Walker became a respected businessman and patented inventions that improved film reels when nickelodeons were popularized. In 1902, the brothers explored ideas of black nationalism as editors for The Equator , although no copies exist today as evidence. Walker expanded upon his works about race theory in The Equator by publishing
6512-469: The uneducated proletariat and the urban industrial workers in order to integrate them to the revolution because "the history of all countries shows that the working class, exclusively by its own efforts, is able to develop only trade-union consciousness" and will settle for the limited, socio-economic gains so achieved. In Russia as in Continental Europe , socialist theory was the product of
6600-488: The universities of the U.S. are bureaucratic, private businesses, they "do not teach critical reasoning to the student", who then does not know "how to gauge what is going on in the general struggle for power in modern society". Likewise, Richard Rorty criticized the quality of participation of intellectuals in public discourse as an example of the "civic irresponsibility of intellect , especially academic intellect". The American legal scholar Richard Posner said that
6688-434: The view that "intellectuals are specialists in defamation , they are basically political commissars , they are the ideological administrators, the most threatened by dissidence ." In his 1967 article " The Responsibility of Intellectuals ", Chomsky analyzes the intellectual culture in the U.S., and argues that it is largely subservient to power . He is particularly critical of social scientists and technocrats, who provide
6776-476: The wealthy in common cause appear to betray one's class origins. The 19th-century U.S. Congregational theologian Edwards Amasa Park said: "We do wrong to our own minds, when we carry out scientific difficulties down to the arena of popular dissension". In his view, it was necessary for the sake of social, economic and political stability "to separate the serious, technical role of professionals from their responsibility [for] supplying usable philosophies for
6864-495: Was an "unabashedly feminist" (tag line) newspaper published in Portland, Oregon 1993 to 1996. Intellectual An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking , research , and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for its normative problems. Coming from the world of culture , either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend
6952-495: Was an American professional baseball catcher who, historically, was credited with being the first black man to play in Major League Baseball (MLB). A native of Mount Pleasant, Ohio , and a star athlete at Oberlin College as well as the University of Michigan , Walker played for semi-professional and minor league baseball clubs before joining the Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association (AA) for
7040-441: Was an anomaly in this society because she took possession of her husband's property when he died. This allowed her to have more power in her world. This society was founded by women, and included many prominent members of English society, both male and female, including Harriet Bowdler , Edmund Burke , Sarah Fielding , Samuel Johnson , and Frances Pulteney . M.P. , an 1811 comic opera by Thomas Moore and Charles Edward Horn ,
7128-404: Was buried at Union Cemetery-Beatty Park next to his first wife. Although Jackie Robinson is very commonly miscredited with being the first African-American to play major league baseball, Walker held the honor among baseball aficionados for decades. In 2007, researcher Pete Morris discovered that another ball player, the formerly enslaved William Edward White , actually played a single game for
7216-421: Was contingent upon political pragmatism , abandoning the political neutrality of the academic intellectual. In The Sociological Imagination (1959), C. Wright Mills said that academics had become ill-equipped for participating in public discourse, and that journalists usually are "more politically alert and knowledgeable than sociologists, economists, and especially ... political scientists". That, because
7304-710: Was controversial when the team arrived for a game in Louisville, Kentucky , the first place to have a major issue with his race. As the team arrived in the early morning of the game, Walker was turned away from the Saint Cloud Hotel. More issues arose during game time: members of the Louisville Eclipse protested Walker's participation; Cleveland relented and held him out of the lineup. After one inning, his substitute claimed his hands were too badly bruised to continue, and Walker hesitantly walked on to
7392-502: Was gradually superseded by the academic method, and the term "Man of Letters" became disused, replaced by the generic term "intellectual", describing the intellectual person. The archaic term is the basis of the names of several academic institutions which call themselves Colleges of Letters and Science . The earliest record of the English noun "intellectual" is found in the 19th century, where in 1813, Byron reports that 'I wish I may be well enough to listen to these intellectuals'. Over
7480-525: Was relatively common in European countries such as the United Kingdom , the "Man of Letters" ( littérateur ) denotation broadened to mean "specialized", a man who earned his living writing intellectually (not creatively) about literature: the essayist , the journalist , the critic , et al. Examples include Samuel Johnson , Walter Scott and Thomas Carlyle . In the 20th century, such an approach
7568-450: Was subtitled The Blue Stocking . It contained a character Lady Bab Blue who was a parody of bluestockings. A reference to bluestockings has been attributed to John Amos Comenius in his 1638 book, where he mentioned the ancient tradition of women being excluded from higher education, citing the Bible and Euripides . That second reference, though, comes from Keatinge's 1896 translation and
7656-679: Was their unofficial spokesman and established business ties in the city. On August 23, 1889, Walker was released from the team; he was the last African-American to play in the International League until Jackie Robinson . Walker stayed in Syracuse after the Stars released him, returning to a position in the postal service. Around this time, a former Syracuse University professor, Dr. Joel Gibert Justin, had been experimenting with firing artillery shells with compressed air rather than gunpowder , culminating in his failed invention of
7744-664: Was three years old, the family moved 20 miles northeast to Steubenville where Walker senior became one of the first black physicians in Ohio, and later a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church . There, Walker's fifth or sixth sibling, his younger brother Weldy , was born the same year. Walker and Weldy attended Steubenville High School in the early 1870s, just as the community passed legislation for racial integration. As an adult, Walker enrolled at Oberlin College in 1878, where he majored in philosophy and
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